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THE
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF RELIGIOUS PSYCHOLOGY
{AND
EDUCATION.
EDITED BY
G. STANLEY HALL
President of Clark University and Professor of Psychology and Education.
WITH THE CO-OPERATION OF
JEAN DU BUY, Clark University; GEORGE A. COE, Northwestern
University; THEODORE FLOURNOY, University of Geneva; JAMES
H. LEUBA, Bryn Mawr College ; EDWIN D. STARBUCK, Earlham
College; R. M. WENLY, University of Michigan, and others
VOL. I
May, 1904— August, 1905
8" ^f<,H
',.!-''
Louis N. Wilson, Publisher Worcester, Mass.
COPYRIGHT, 1905, BY G. STANLEY HALL
THK COMMOXWEALTH PRESS
O. 11. WOOD, PROPRIETOR
W0R0E9TEK, MASS.
TAHLE OF CONTKNTS.
DV Huv, Jkan. Stages of Religious Development .
Hall, G. Stanley. The Jesus of History and of the Passion
versus the Jesus of the Resurrection Kline. L. W. The Sermon : a Study in Social Psychology Lelha. James H. F'aith ......
Leuba, Jajies H. The Field and the Problems of the Psy- chologj- of Religion ......
Lo.mhakd, Frank Alanson. Notes upon a Study in the Ped agogy of Missions .......
Moses, Jo.sLx\.h . The Pathology of Religions Ranson, S. Walter. Studies in the P.sycholog}- of Prayer Robinson, Ch.vrle.s Frederick. Some Psychological Ele- ments in Famous Superstitions ....
Rov.se, Clarence D. The Psychology of Saul 's Conversion Stakhuck, Edwin Diller. The Feelings and their IMace in Religion ........
Tausch, E. Note on Racial Differences m Spanish Religion
Whatham, Arthur E. The Origin of Circumcision
Whatha.m, Arthur E. The Outward Form of the Original
Sin; a New Study of Genesis 3 . . . . .
■30
288 65
155
113 217 129
248 143
168 317 301
268
BOOKS REVIEWED.
A ALL, A. Geschichte der Lfigosidec in der Christliohen Litteratur . . 101
Adler, Felix. The Religion of Duty 333
Andeksen, Karl. Ideeii zn eiiier .lesuzentrischen Weltreligion . . 103
Bacon, L. W. The Congregationalists 200
Barclay, J. W. A New Theory ot Organic Evolution .... 108
Baknes, Lemuel Cali>. Two Thousand Years of Missions Before Carey 334
Baumoakten, <). Neue Bahneu 200
Beakdsley, Frank Gkenvillk. The History of Modern Revivals . . 333
Bertholet, a. Der Buddhismus und seine Bedeutung tiir unser Geistesleben, 207 Beth, Karl. Das Wesen des Christentums and die Moderne Historische
Denkweise * . . -VM
Blatciiforii, R()R7;rt. (Jod and My Neighbor 334
DE Boer, T. .J. The History of Philosophy in Islam 207
Brat)Kokd, a. n. The (Jrowth of the Soul 109
Breed, D. R. The History and Use of Hymns and Hymn-Tunes . . 198
Briggs, C. a. New Light on the Life of .Jesus 109
Brcch, p. Jesus als Erzieher 100
Bruckner, M. Die Entstehung der Paulinisehen Christologie . . . 106 Bryce, James. The Relations of the Advanced and the Backward Races
of Mankind 334
BuRKiTT, F. Ckawfoki). Early Eastern Christianity 327
BuRRELL, David Jame^;. The Teaching of Jesus Concerning the Scriptures, .'JSl
Caird, E. The Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers . . 107
Caird, E. The Social Pliilosophy anil Religion of Comte .... 211
Catiirein, V. Glaubeu und Wissen 199
Chambers, E. K. The Mediieval Stage 100
Clark, W. Pascal and the Port Royalists 199
CoE, (i. A. Education in Religion and Morals ...... 334
COE, G. A. The Relation of the Young Men's Christian Association Movement
to the Boy 106
CoE, G. A. Religion as a Factor in Individual and Social Development . 323
CoE, G. A. The Religion of a Mature Mind 323
CoE, G. A. The Work of a Boys' Department in a Young Men's Christian
Association 106
Crocker, J. H. The Supremacy of Jesus 213
CuMONT, F. The Mysteries of Mithra 207
Davis, W. H. Men of the Bible, with Students' Lesson Leaves . . . 110
Delanne, (i. Evidence for a futui'e life 209
Denny, J. The Atonement and the Modern Mind ...... 108
DoBsciiUETy,, E. VON. Probleme des Apostolischen Zeitalters . . . 107
DoNEiioo, J. DE Q. The Apocryphal and Legendary Life of Christ . . 196
DoRNER, A. Grundprobleme der Religions-philosophic .... 107
Drury, T. W. Confession and Absolution 196
DuGAs, L. L'Absolu 107
DuNKLEY, C. The OfHcial Report of the Church Congress, held at Bristol,
October 12th to 16th, 1903 106
Eleutheropulos, a. (iott. Religion 110
Engels, F. Feuerbach . 212
Euoken, R. Die Lebensanschauungen der grosser Denker .... 110
Fechner, G. T. The Little Hook of Life after Death 212
Floody, R. J. Scientific Basis of Sabbath and Sunday 198
Floubnay, Th. Les Principes de la Psychologie Religieuse; Observations
de Psychologie Religieuse 95
Books Jteoiewed v
Pac-.e.
KiiOBENirs. L. Das Zoitalter ties Soiinengottes 204
Uates, K. Tlie K^irly Kelation ami Scparatiuii of baptists ami Disciples . 200 liiEssi.KK, \V. Ihis Mitli'iil ill ilor iicucreii Ktliik iiiit Inisimderer Riicksicbt
auf Kr. Neitzsrhe, H. Wafjiit-r uiui 1^. Tolstoi 213
GoETZ, K. (;. Dit" Atioiulinalilsfra;;i- in iliror geschichtlichen Entwicklung, 194
(!o!.i). Wii.MAM J. Sacrilioial Worship 333
liKKiiouovn s, F. Tlir Toiiihs of the Popes ....... I'.tO
tiiilMM. E. Die Ethik .Icsii 104
(Ukti'I.kk, C. Wissen iiiul (ilaubeii 103
(iii.lCK, S. li. Evolution of the .lapanese 98
Gri.icK, Sydnky L. The i;ro\vth of the Kinj;iioiii of (iod .... .333
OfNTiiEK, S. Ziele. Hiehtpuiike uiiii MellioiUii iler .Modernen Volkerkunde, 110
II.\I,I„ (i. S. Clark riiivcrsity Studies in the Tsyiliolo-jy of Religion . . Ill
1I.\KI'KI!. Wli.l.lAM K. The Trend of tlie Higher Kdui-ation . . . 32;')
llAitKisoN, .Iaxk Ki.i.KN. ProU'goniena to the Study of the (ireek Religion 319
IIawtkf.y. V. The Lifi> of .St. .Slary Magdalen ." 190
IIkivkk, (i. n. The Teaehings (if .Jesus Concerning Wealth . . . 194
IloHKN, A. The Virgin Uirth 189
Hki'kins, F'dward W.\snBiRs. The Religions of India .... .331 Hysi.op, .1. H. The Ethics of the Greek Philosophers, Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle 205
Ideals of Science and Faith 333
.Iki)I.icsk.\, .1. Die Zweite Entstehung der Welt, das angebliche Paradies
inul die angetiliilie Sintllut 110
.loiiNSTONK, P. Dk 1,. Muhammad and Ilis Power ..... 207
KAi.TKSii.\cii, ,1. I'syeholiJgy of Religion in France ..... 90
K.vi.THOKK. A. Die Entstehung des Christentums ...... 187
Kknnkoy. U. A. A. St. Paul's Conception of the Last Things . . . 193 Kino, H. C. Christian Training and the Revival as Methods of Converting
Men 106
Knioiit. H. T. Rational Religion 211
Knox, (J. W. The Direct and Fundamental Proofs of the Christian Religion, 190
KoKl.LK. S. W. The Coal of th.' Tniverse 209
Ki KTZ. R. /.iir Psycholngie der vore.vilischen Prophetic in Israel . . 212
L.\UKl()i..\. A. Essays on the Materialistic Conception of History . . 212 LAi>KXHin<i, .Vi.nKKT. Ober den Eintluss der Naturwissenschaften anf die
Weltanschauung 102
Lanoe, A. Deutsche Ootter-und Ileldensagen, fiir Ilaus und Schule nach
den hesten Quellen 110
Lkii.mann-Hoiiknhkkc;. Naturwissenschaft und Hibel .... 213
Lki n.\, .1. II. Tin- Contents of Religious Consciousness .... 84
Lkiha, .1. II. Fuudanu-ntal Tendencies of the Christian Mystics . . 87
Lkiiia, .1. II. Introduction to a Psychological Study of Religion . . 83
Lkiiia, .1. II. Religion: Its Impulses and Its I'.mls 86
Lki IIA, .1. II. The State of Death; an Instance of Internal Adaptation . 83
Lki ii.\. .1. II. Stuilies in the I'sycliology of Religious Phenomena . . 89
LoiisTElx, P. The Virgin Hirthof Christ 188
Lnisv, A. The Gospel and the Church 191
LoMiiAitii. F. .V. Note on Religious Evolution in .lapan .... 96
Li (KA, Emu,. Otto Weininger. Sein Werk und seiu Personliebkeit . 334
.MacVky, W. P. The (Jeniiis of .Methoilism 199
Matthews. Sii.\ii.kk. The Messianic Hope in the New Testament . 332
Mkans, S. Saint Paul and the Anteniceiie Church 19.">
.Mkissnkk, Mmk. iiK. The Higher Life 211
MoNoii, .M. Essai sur le l)cvelo|>pement Religieux (tes ApOtres pendant le
ininistere terrestre de .lesus . . 109
ModRK. E. C. The New Testament in the Christian Church . 191
MiiiiiiKAii, L. A. The Eschatology of .Tesus 191
MiKisiKK, Erxe.st. Les Maladies du Sentiment Religieux ... 93
Nki.i.e, W. Geschichte des deutschen evangelischen Kirchenliedes . . 198
Nei.sox, N. L. Scieiitilic Aspects of Mormonism 2tt)
vi Table of Contents
Page. Nielsen, D. Die altarabische Mondreligion und die mosaische Ueberlie-
ferung 104
NOHLE, Margaret E. The Web of Indian Life 333
NoRDAU, M. and Oottiieil. Zionism and Anti-Semitism .... 205
Oltoff, R. Die Religionen der Volker und Gelehrten Aller Zeiten . 110
Oman, J. C. The Mystics, Ascetics, and Saints of India .... 206
OsBORX, L. D. The Recovery and Restatement of the Gospel . . . 189
Pahncke, K. H. Idealisten und Idealismus des Christentums . . . 196
Pattison, T. H. The History of Christian preaching 197
Pfitngst, a. Ans der Indischen Kulturwelt 105
Phelps, M. H. Life and Teachings of Abbas Effendi 104
PiCTON, .J. A. The Religion of the Universe 208
PremAnand Bharati, BAba, Sree Krishna, the Lord of Love . . . 330
Religious Education Association 213
Reville, J. Liberal Christianitv 190
RuYs Davids, T. W. Buddhism" 206
Rice, W. X. Christian Faith in an Age of Science 195
Sabatier, A. Religions of Authority and the Religion of the Spirit . . 101
Sayce, a. H. The Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia . . . 332
Schell, H. Apologie des Christentums 191
SciiNEinER, T. Was ist's mit der Sintflut '?....... 110
ScnwART7,KOPF, P. Neitzsclie, der "Antichrist" ...... 109
ScoiLLER, I. The Law of Evolution, its True Philosophic Basis . . 108
Staubixk, E. D. The Psychology of Religion ...... 214
Stewart, .J, Dawn in the Dark Continent 202
Stoiuiart, a. M. Francis of Assisi 197
Stri'N'7., F. Naturbetrachtung und Naturerkenntnis ini Altertum . .109,204
Stuntz, H. C. The Philippines and the Far East 203
TiELE, C. P. Grundzuge der Religions-wissenschaft ..... 198
TiTir.i, A. Religion und Xaturwissensohaft 102
Todd, J. C. Politics and Religion in Ancient Israel 205
Tolstoy, L. Essays and Letters 197
TowNE, Edw.\rd C. (ed.) New America 330
Truempelm.\nn, a. Die moderne Weltanschauung und das apostolische
Glaubensbekenntniss 195
UsENF.R. H., and Other.s. Archiv fiir Religionswissenschaft unter Mitre-
daktion 106
Valli, LriGi. II Fondamento psicologica della Religione .... 316 Van Velzen, H. T. System des Religiosen Materialismus . . .101,211
Volter, D. Die Apostolischen Vater 195
VoRBRODT, G. Beitrage zur religiosen Psychologie; Psychobiologie und
Gefiihl 213
Wachter, W. Das Feuer in der Natur, im Kultus und Jlythus, im Volker-
leben 204
Waggett, p. N. Religion and Science 199
Wanger, C. The Simple Life 213
Weininger, O. Uber die Letzten Dinge 209
Weiss, Bernard. Die Religion des Neuen Testaments . . . .188,331
Weiss, J. Die OffenViarung des Johannes 193
Wernle, p. The Beginnings of Christianity 187
Wielandt, R. Herders Theorie von der Religion und den religiosen
Vorstellungen ............ 211
ZocKLER, O. Die Tngendlehre des Christentums 194
FHF AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF RELIGIOUS PSYCHOLOGY
AND EDUCATION.
VoLUJiE 1 MAY, 1904. No. 1
KDITOIUAL.
Within recent years the religious phenomena centering in conver- sion have been studied by the comparative and objective methods of psycholog)- whicli has presented them in a new light. From the stand- point of this science these changes are now regarded as marking the stage of crisis in the iionnal and very essential transition involved in the very nature of individual development from self-centered childhood to the altruism of maturity. They have been found to occur most fre- quently in adolescent years and are now correlated, not only with the continuation ceremonies f)f many Christian and other religious sects, but also with the all but univei-sal rites by which savage tribes form- ally induct their youth and maidens into thr insights and duties of iidult life. Tlie religious valuo of these studies lias found abundant recogni- tion in all progressive churches and has given to many thoughtful and cul- tivated minds outside the pale of their inlluence augmented interest in, and a deepened sense of the reality of, religion. It also marks an exten- sion of the domain of science within the field of man's hisrher nature and has helped to close the chasm, which has long been so calamitous for youth, between science and religion. Scrupulously refraining from interfering with any characterization of superhuman agencies or tran- scendental provisions for, or aims and results of, this change, psychol- ogy limits itself .solely to the study of its phenomena in the lumian soul with a view to determining their chief fomis, sequences and laws. What has been done here is probably only a beginning and the best is yet to be accomplished.
Meanwhile, although less popularly known as yet, similar researches have begun in the field of many other vital religious experiences in each
2 Editorial
of which a small hut precious and most promising literature is arising, and work of similar moment is either done or impends.
Religious pathology, a new and suggestive theme, seeks, in the aberrations of the religious instinct, to show both its power and its peculiar proneness to excess, and would already lay down a few lines, rough and provisional though they be, between what is normal and ab- normal. That the religious nature has diseases both chronic and acute of its own not only its history but many of its contemporary manifestations abundantly show. It is also already plain that we can gain insight into the working of the factors of the healthful life of piety by observ- ing them "writ large" in its distempers, just as sanity in general profits from the study of insanity. Some, again, are now seeking to vindicate or probabdize the fact of inspiration and some of the other functions of the Holy Spirit by a new scrutiny of not only genius but of ecstatic and hypnoid states in which the ordinary mental processes are quickened and exalted, and even think side lights to be cast upon this theme by the observation of so-called trance-mediumship, control, telepathy, etc. Certain it is that the doctrine, not only of inspiration, but even of revelation, needs a form of restatement that is more consonant with psychic facts. Again, confession has had, of late, a new and even clinical justification as a therapeutic process of extraditing the traumata of evil from the soul in a way which is most suggestive in explaining how sin may be forsaken and how pardon operates subjectively. Pity is no longer studied as only a part of aesthetics but in a way which shows that the story of the cross is its most consummate masterpiece and how, when rightly directed and sufficiently evoked, it has a power, Nietsche to the contraiy notwithstanding, of transforming life and which the modern world had forgotten. Faith is shown to be one of the supreme words in the vocabulary of the soul, the bearer of the unseen world of the morally ideal and the organ of that best part of history, which is not yet written because it has not yet occurred. Its ictus may be connected with something like sympathetic vibrations from the soul's immemorial past, and its phenomenon of in-esistible conviction stands forth in a new way when illuminated by the higher evolution and anthropology. Scripture is coming to be slowly revealed as the chief practical textbook of the race in a large ethnic psychology that reaches to the depths and does not so scrupulously confine itself as do so many of its modern academic expositions to the surface phe-
Editorial 3
nomena of psychic life. Prayer, too, is almost a category of the heait, not only a passion of many savages whose lives centre in it, but also of the devotees of even a religion like Huddhisni which gives it no object and provides no place fur it in its cult. Its high subjective function for man is established even if no praj'er had ever been objectively answered. Biology has lately given the world a new conception of death and its function in the world, which teems with possibilities for religion which are only just beginning to be exploited. More perhaps than anything else, modern psychic study emphasizes sin and evil as the church grows euphemistic about them. These studies have already established points of connection, on the one hand with melancholia, and on the other with pessimism, while its roots in sex and its relations to heredity are being understood as never before until some bio-psychol- ogists almost wish to take the pulpit to bring out aright the old anthems of Pauline conviction of sin and Socratic convictions of human ignorance. We cannot here characterize or perhaps even name all the old problems that are beginning to glow with a new light like the baby faces awaiting incarnation on the canvases of the old masters. Sacrifice, poverty, obedience, chastity, asceticism, renunciation and its motives and forms, creeds, dogma and doctrine, worship including sacraments, rites, ritual and ceremonies, priests and saints, the psycho-pedagogic a.'^pect of miracles, especially those of healing, as related to mental states, the nature, value and limitations of personality, the feminine aspects and fiinctions of religion and Mariolatrj', the Sabbath as a philosophical institution and the uses of rest from fatigue of body and soul, the relation of religion to art and aesthetics, the place and form of symbols, vows and oaths, the psycholog}- of sects, the relations of religious feeling and belief to morals and conduct : — all these and many more topics have anthropological sides which theology has too often failed adequately to recognize which are quite distinct from, and, to some extent, independent of, historical criticism or textual exegesis. To report the literature upon such topics as these, and, we hope, in some degree to contribute to their further development, will be the first object of this journal.
The philosophy of religion and the new departures in theology since Schleiennacher and much more since Hitschl, the work of whose school and pupils centres in Kant's theory of the practical reason, represents a standpoint quite distinct from the above, but has been the best propae-
4 Editorial
deutic to it because by this work attention has been so called to the fact that the laws of the human intellect, heart, and will underlie and are the key to all the verities of religion. Quickening as has been the attempt to rebase religious experience upon judgments of moral worths or val- ues, the preservation of which is sometimes now called a law compara- ble to that of the conservation of energy in the physical world, psychology is now taking an inevitable next step. It takes its departure from the religious experience of the average individual whom it regards as worthy of all scientific honor, but whom philosophy has too often spurned. It studies even the nature and attributes of God, but less as the almighty creator of the world and maker of man, than as conditioned or projected by the human soul. It deals with regeneration not so much as planned in the eternal coiuisels of heaven as factualized in the processes of the human heart. The Truiity presents a challenging problem the meta- physical aspects of which belong to systematic divinity and only its relations to a tripartite division of man's nature, and some of even its comparative historical sub-departments pertain to psychology. Recog- nizing that all our views of man are now in a peculiarly mobile and transitional state, and that also our old mooring is progressively broken in a way that has suggested to some that man himself, as we now know him, is not a permanent type but an organism now in an abuost acutely rapid stage of evolution toward some more settled form like animals, we believe it the function and duty of psychology to bear a hand in reformu- lating ancient dogma in showing a natural basis for, and preformation in, the soul of many a venerable tenet of theology and thus, in the main, in fulfilling and not destroying those bases on which Christian and other religious founders have built. Only thus can religion, which in many respects and in many places is now losing contact with human life, be made less alien, heteronomous and traditional, and brought into closer conformity to human nature and needs. Psychology, thus, has in it a promise and potency of rejustifying the ways of God to man in modes and degree now undreamed of.
Commonly accepted versions of many Christian truths are now in- adequate, and their media'val foi-ms of statement must be modified, but with the utmost wisdom and all without oifense. ( )ur morality is slowly losing its religious basis, while the masses of workers whose whole lives are shadowed by the danger of a want which they have not merited, and goaded by the vulgar displays of wealth and the insolence of
Editorial 6
its power, familiiir as they are with the democratic phititudes of e<iual- ity, are "predisposed to the sopliistries of anarchy." It is a situation and not a theory that confronts us. Whether we shall go as far as a Canon Henson. preacher at both Oxford and ('anihrid<fe. and ask, "Is the faith uf the church in the divine C'lirist living, present and active, really built on an emptj- tomb?" and who declares that inspiration can no longer certify to irrationalities, or at Sir Oliver Lodge who repudi- ates the belief "in an angry God appeased by the violent death of Christ" as "a survival fron barbaric times:" — these are pruljlems that may well give us pause. One thing, however, is certain, viz., if the most venerable and current orthodoxies are at any point clearly .seen to be so opposed to the practical, social, religious and personal needs of the modern world that in choosing the one we must abandon the other, it is both unmanly and unciuistian to hover or temporize, but we must make the choice if we would be dutiful or even honest. To this great and impending work of reconstruction, a psychology, itself emancipated from its ancient traditions and in closest touch with both the biologos, whicii like tlie divine logos has its own inspiration, and, with the present throbbing life of men, women and children, can do a work which if done aright will bring a true revival of a kind and degree that the Christian world has not known in recent centuries, and religion will resume its rightful sovereignty over the city of Mansoul.
On the pedagogic side this journal will try to keep account of all i-eligious work that may be called educational, including the Sunday School now in a stage of metamorphosis. Much of the work here will be comparative, describing the modes of religious nurture and training in dirt'erent religions, sects and lands. The pedagogic methods of Jesus, Paul, and great Christian and non-Christian teachers will be discussed. Homiletic nietlK)ds and preaihing will also be considered from the standpoint of modern educational doctrine. Special attention will be given from time to time to the methods of missionarj' woik, which it is believed are in special need of reconsti-uction, not only in the fields of the lower and more primitive, but in tiiose of each of the great ethnic religions.
Some space will also be devoted to the develoi)ment of the religious ideas of children and young people and also to the systematic exposi- tions of savage I'ites, beliefs and institutions. The great religions of the higher and even the lower non-Christian races will be treated more from an apologetic than from a critical standpoint.
U Editorial
Besides leading and minor articles, much attention will be given in each number to reviews and notes on the chief current publications in English and other languages that fall within the scope of religious psy- chology-. Both books and important articles will be included in this survey. Publishers are invited to send us these for this purpose, and everythuig of whatever length, if it has any merit, will be, at least, given in title.
The new joiunal is thus especially addressed to professors and stu- dents of religion in semuiaries and colleges, to pastors, to reUgious workers, Siuiday School teachers, and those mterested in mission work and in all those moral and social reforms based upon religious motives.
The editor, and each co-operator, as well as each contributor or re- viewer, is responsible only for his own views, and all articles and all important reviews will be signed. Unanimity of standpoint or of opin- ion is neither expected or desired.
Each niunber will probably contain from seventy-five to one hun- dred pages, and at least three niunbers will appear each year and will constitute a volume.
G. S. H.
STAGES OF RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT.
By jean vv buy, J. U. D., Pii. 1).,
Docent in Comparative Religion, Clark University.
The following paper represents the last results of an extended study of four great non-t'hristian religions which I made for the purpose of arriving at the quintessence of these religions and of finding out, if I may, what practical value they possess for us. The four religions which I selected are Mohanunedanism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and the Vedanta philosophy. I chose the Vcdanta phihjsopiiy as the best representative of Brahmanism whose highest consummation it is. In tiiis paper I shall compare these four religions with one another as well as with the religion of Jesus. I shall do this by summarizing the results of my study, and by putting together what each of these five religions, inclusive of the religion of Jesus, has to say on such topics as God, prayer, life after death, morals and ethics, obedience and autliority, love, tolerance, war. marriage, and so on. In the case of each of these topics I shall run thmugli all live religions, as far as I have data, and shall always run tlirougli them in the same order. Tliis order will be the following one: first, .Mohammedanism; secondly, Con- fucianism ; thirdly, the religion of Jesus; fourthly. Buddhism ; and fifthly, the Vedanta philosophy. I put the religion of Jesus in the third place, between Confucianism and Buddhism, and put Huddhisni and the Vedanta pliilosciphy after the religinn of Jesus. Hut this does not mean any reflection on the religion of Jesus, as wdl be seen from what follows. In particular, it does not mean that I put Buddhism and the Vedantii philosophy above the religion of Jesus. What I wish to point out by running through the five religions in the order mentioned will be underetood best after I shall have finished my com- parison.
1. The Central Idea.
I shall begin my comparison by setting forth the central idea of each of these five religions.
8 JEAN DU BUY
1. The two fundamental beliefs of Mohammedanism are the belief in the existence of one God, or in the unity of God, and the belief in the prophetic mission of Mohammed. The central idea of Mohamme- danism is the existence of one God who demands from all men submis- sion to His will and Mohammed's mission to proclaim God's will. We may describe Mohanmiedanism as being primarily theological and dog- matic, and as beuig far less moral than theological.
2. The central idea of Confucianism is the idea of a superior man: one ought to become a superior man by means of moral training. We may describe Kung-tsze's teaching as being a moral teaching and, in so far as the superior man of Confucianism prepares himself to become the head of a family and an official of the state, as being a social and a political teaching. It enjoins conventional morality, and is essentially of this world and non-spiritual.
3. Every one is familiar with the two conmiandments which Jesus quoted from the iive books of Moses, and which he joined together : "Thou shalt love the Lord tliy (iod with all tliy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy strength " and " Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself."' Translating these two command- ments mto Jesus' own language, we may say the central idea of the religion of Jesus is that we ought to become children of our divine Father and brothers of our fellowmen. We may describe the religion of Jesus as beuig religious and ethical, its ethics containing both indi- vidual and social ethics.
4. The fundamental belief of Buddhism is the belief in the law of Karman, or in the law of righteousness, the belief that every act will have its natural consequences, that "whatever a man sows that shall he also reap." The central idea of Buddhism is that we ought to try to under- stand this law of Kannan, and to order our life in accordance with it. We may describe Buddliism as being etliical and, in so far as it tries to understand the laws of the spiritual world, as being scientific. Its ethics are individual ethics exclusively. Buddhism is a religion of self- culture.
5. The central idea of the Vedfinta philosophy is the belief in the identity of the Atman and of the Brahman, the belief in the substantial identity of the individual Self and of the Brahman, or the belief in the
•Mark 12, :W and ai.
Stages <>/ /ulii/inus Derelopmeiit 9
eternal oneness of the innermost essence of man and of the Divine Essence; in other words, the behef in the Divinity of man. We may describe the Vedauta philosophy as being metaphysical and mystical. It practically has no ethics.
As we pass from the central idea of the first of these five religions to the central idea of the other four religions ui the above order, from the dogmatic assertion of the existence of one God to the desu-e to be- come a superior man, thence to the ideal of becoming a child of our di^nne Father and a brother of oxn- fellowmen. thence to the attempt to understand the laws of the spiritual world and to live in accordance with them, and. finally, to the belief in the substantial identity of the individual .Self and of the Divine Essence, we are passmg, it seems to me, through essentially the same stages of religious development thi'ough which the individual passes as he advances from childhood to boyhood, thence to adolescence, thence to manhood, and, finally, to old age. And when we consider that Mohammedanism is theological and little moral, C'onfuciani.-^m moral and of this world, the religion of Jesus religious and ethical, Buddhism ethical and scientific, and the Vedanta philosophy metaphysical and mystical, we are justified, it seems to me, in saying that .Mohammedanism expresses the mind of the child, Con- fucianism the mind of the boy, the religion of Jesus the mind of the adolescent. Buddhism the mind of the mature man, anil the Vedanta philosophy the mind of the old man. That this assertion is justified to a large extent, will appear, 1 think, from the following detailed com- parison of the five religions.
2. aod.
1. Mohammedanism teaches the existence of a personal God. It is monotheistic. Its God is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent. He is the Creator of all things in heaven and on earth, and is thought of as a King who rules over every detail of our life, and whom it is our duty to obey. But the God of Mohammedanism is not of a high moral order. Love does not fonn im essential part of His character.
2. Kung-tsze's teaching is silent on the subject of a personal God. But the ancient Chinese before Kung-tsze worshipped a personal God, called Shang-te, the Supreme Ruler of heaven and earth. It almost seems as if the ancient Chinese were real nionotheists at one time. And Shang-te has been worshipped in China to this day in spite of Kung-tsze's silence on the subject.
10 JEAN DU BUY
3. The religion of Jesus is based on the belief in a divine Father who is generally thought of as a personal God. Christians are mono- theists. True Christians thuik of their God as of a lovmg Father and a Friend rather than as of a King. And then: attitude towards their God is love rather than mere obedience.
4. Buddhism does not recognize a personal God. The impersonal law of Karman takes the place of a personal God in Buddliism. But Gotama's teaching is not atheistic or materialistic. Gotama simply stopped when he had come to the end of all that he could see of spirit- ual law.
5. The Vedanta philosophy is based on the belief in the Brahman, on the belief in One Divine Essence. This Brahman is the only thing that is, the only true reality, or the absolute reality. The Vedanta philosophy is monistic. The only attributes of the Brahman are: that it is; that it knows ; and that it is full of bliss. The Brahman is desig- nated, not as He, but as It. For the Bnlhman is high above all condi- tions and limitations inherent in personality.
Now, if we bear in mind that the JNIohammedan believes in a per- sonal God who is a King, that the Confucianist has a faint belief in a Supreme Ruler, that the Christian believes m a divme Father, that the Buddhist worships impersonal law, and that the Vedantist believes in One Divine Essence with which his real Self is identical in substance, we seem to be justified in the conclusion that the Mohammedan idea of God as a Kmg whom it is our duty to obey suits the child, that the famt Confucianist belief in a Supreme Ruler suits the boy during the rather non-spiritual years of boyhood, that the Christian belief in a divine Father suits the adolescent, that the Buddhistic belief in the reign of law suits the mature man, and that the Vedanta belief in One Divine Essence suits the old man.
3. Inspiration.
1. Mohammed believed that he was the unerring mouthpiece of God. And the Koran lays claim to a verbal, literal, and mechanical inspiration of all its parts alike.
2. Kung-tsze was silent on the subject of a personal God. Yet he had the belief that he had a Heaven-sent mission.
3. Jesus declares that he is inspired in such words as these of the gospel of John: " My teaching is not mine, but his that sent me " and
Stayed of lieliyi.ntis JJevelupment 11
"I do nothing of myself, but. as tlie Father taught me, I speak these things." The uispiration which Jesus claiui.s is a spiritual inspiration.
4. Since Gotama did not recognize a God, he could not claim to be a prophet, a messenger from a God, or an inspired teacher.
5. The Vedanta philosophy is an independent system of philoso- phy. Yet it is entirely dependent on a book which was believed to be a revelation, — on the Veda.
4- Prayer.
1. -Mohammed enjoined prayer as a duty.
2. Kung-tsze saw no need for prayer.
3. The religion of Jesus knows prayer as communion with a divine Father.
4. In strict Buddhism there is no prayer. Since Buddhists be- lieve that the world is ruled by the law of Kannan, they have no need for prayer. Its place is taken by meditation in Buddhism.
5. In the Vedanta philosophy the place of prayer is taken by med- itation, by the attempt to realize our oneness with the Brahman, with the One Divine Essence.
I wish to point out here that of the five religions under discussion two only recognize prayer, Mohamuiedanism and the religion of Jesus, and that with this difference that Mohammedanism enjoins prayer as a practical duty, wliile to true followers of Jesus prayer is a volunt<iry communion with their God rather than a duty, just as the child will pray because it is enjoined to do so, while the adolescent will pray be- cause he feels the need for communion with the divine Father. I also wish to point out that, while Kung-tsze's teaching, strict Buddhism, and the Vedanta philosophy, all three, do not recognize prayer, they neglect to do so for very different reasons : Kung-tsze because he was of this W(jrld and non-spiritual, like a boy; Buddhism because its atti- tude is scientific, like that of a mature man; and the Vedanta philoso- phy because it is metaphysical and mystical, like many an old man.
5. Priesthood and Forms.
1. Mohammedanism, as instituted by Mohammed, had no sacrifices and no priests. It was animated by a deep hatred of all priestcraft, fonnali.sm, and idolatiy. Mohammed overthrew sacrifices, religious
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forms, and idolatry. And Mohammedanism is stemly opposed to idol- atry to this day. It may be called a spiritual religion.
2. Kiing-tsze was wrapped up in the observance of rites and cere- monies. And the emperor of China offers sacrifices to Kung-tsze to-day. Mandarins officiate on these occasions.
3. The religion of Jesus, in its original purity, knew no priests, and, as preached by Jesus, probably likewise no forms. It is a spirit- ual religion.
4. Strict Buddhism is a religion without a priesthood. The Buddhistic monks are no priests. Buddhism abhors all claiming of authority. And there are no ceremonies, rites, or forms in strict Buddhism.
5. The Vedanta philosophy rejects as useless for its adherents sac- rifices and the observation of religious rites and ceremonies.
We thus see that four of the five religions under discussion, in their original pui'ity, do not know either priests, or foiins, — Mohammedan- ism, the religion of Jesus, Buddliism, and the Vedanta philosophy, but that Confucianism, which I have described as the religion of boy- hood, is wiapped up in the observance of ceremonies. And observa- tion teaches us that boys and girls in the years i)receding adolescence, while not bemg very spiritual, ai'e often greatly interested in the observance of religious ceremonies.
G. Life after Death.
1. Mohammedanism holds out to its followers the hope of ever- lasting life in a heaven. Its conception of heaven is sensual. Shady gardens and bubbling foiuitains play an important part in it. It is only in a few passages of the Koran that Mohammed dwells on the gross aspects of life after death.
2. Kung-tsze was exclusively interested in the earthly life of man. It is true, the Chinese have worshipped the spirits of their departed ancestors from time immemorial. But the idea of life after death, as we understand it, had not yet sprung up in China in Kung-tsze's tune.
3. Christianity holds out the hope of life after death.
4. Buddhism holds out no hope of immortality in a heaven, but offers Nirvana in its place. And we may think that this Nirvana, or Great Peace, of Buddhism is eternal death.
5. Since the Vedanta philosophy believes that the individual Self
Stages of RelicjinuK Development 13
is identical with the eternal Rnibman, with the Divine Essence, it fol- lows that the individual Self cannot be touched by death, but is with- out beginning and without end. But this belief does not mean personal immortality. According to the Vedanta philo.sopliy. immortality may be realized in the present life by our gaining a knowledge of our one- ness with the Brahman, with the Divine Essence.
Now, it seems to me that the different attitude of these five relig- ions towards the question of life after death suits the individual at (litTerent stages of his religious development: that the Mohammedan belief in a material heaven suits the child, that the Confucianist interest in the present life and the Confucianist worship of the spirits of de- jiarted ancestors suits the boy who is essentially worldly and whose greatest virtue is filial piety, that the strong Christian belief in life after death suits the adolescent who desires personal immortality for him- self as well as for his friends, that the Buddhistic desire for Nirvana suits the weary man in middle life who longs for rest and peace, and that the mystical Vedanta belief in our eternal oneness with the One Divine Essence suits the old man.
7. Morah and Ethics.
1. The morals of Mohammedanism are very imperfect. Moham- medanism knows nothing of the virtues of humility, purity of heart, forgiveness of injuries, and self-sacrifice. The strong points in its morals are the preaching of the responsibility of man, the prohibition of drinking and of gambling, and the great stress laid on the duty of kind- ness to animals.
2. Kung-tsze's teaching is distmguished by the purity and high order of its morality. Constant exhortations to sincerity, faithfulness, and loyalty are to be found on almost every page of the Confucian writings. Kung-tsze laid down reciprocity as a nile of life : he stated Jesus' golden rule in a negative form. But his teaching does not em- [)hasize the duty of forgiveness. He did not approve of the principle that injurj- should be recompensed with kindness, and called the man a coward who returned good for evil. The essential characteristics of Kimg-tsze's morals are the teaching of moral self-improvement; of the force of example; of sini/erity; courage; benevolence; reverence, or respectfulness ; faithfulness ; loyalty; reciprocity; propriety; and filial
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piety. Kung-tsze taught plain, matter of fact maxims of moralit}'. His superior man practices the ordinai-y virtues.
3. The religion of Jesus is distinguished by its lofty ethics. Jesus requests us to love our enemies.
4. In Buddhism compassion, kindness, and sympathy are the high- est virtues. And self-control is very great among Buddhists.