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THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771.
SECOND ten 1777—1784.
THIRD eighteen 1788—1797.
FOURTH twenty 1801—1810.
FIFTH twenty 1815—1817.
SIXTH twenty 18*3—1824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1847.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860.
NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.
ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention
by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME II
ANDROS to AUSTRIA
IBM!
«A . , . P*
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street 1910
t . . . . . • • « •
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME II. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
V A. B. ANDREW ALEXANDER BLAIR.
Chief Chemist. U.S. Geological Survey and Tenth U.S. Census, 1879-1881. •{ Assaying. Member American Philosophical Society. Author of Chemical Analysis of Iron; &c. I
A. B. R. ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, F.R.S., F.L.S., D.Sc. f AneiosDerms (in tartY A Dole
Keeper of the Department of Botany, British Museum. \
A. C. R. C. ALBERT CHARLES ROBINSON CARTER. / »,* c^i.ti-.
Editor of The Year's Art. \ * '"*
A. C. Sp. ARTHUR COE SPENCER, PH.D. f Annalachian MounUin*
Geologist to the Geological Survey of the United States.
A. F. L. ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A. [
Charity Commissioner since 1906. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1874-1881. I Ascham Formerly Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of English Schools at ] the Reformation; History of Winchester College; Bradfield College; &c. I
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc.
Professor of English History in University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, \ Askew. Oxford. I
A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1008).
H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgale;-] Anthropometry. Secrets of the Prison House; &c.
A. H. S. REV ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE D.Lm., LL.D., D.D. f A,,,,,. Cii Assur-Bani-Pal.
Sec the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. I
A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. f .^ ...
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak.
A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. f Argentina: Geography.
Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News 1 Asuncidn;
(Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. I Atacama, Desert ol,
A. L. ANDREW LANG. J* .
See the biographical article : LANG, ANDREW. m'
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE /Astronomy: History.
See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. I
A. S. M. ALEXANDER STCART MCRRAY, LL.D. f »ou*duct (i» t^rfi
See the biographical article: MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART. \
A. T. ANTOINE THOMAS, D.-is-L. f
Professor in the University of Paris. Member of the Institute of France. Director I Aubusson: Town of Studies at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. Author of Les Etats pro- | vinciaux de la France centrale sous Charles VII; &c.
A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f Apportionment-
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Ifl-ws J. iTu?,.-..-.. of England. [ M
B. LORD BALCARRES, M.P., F.S.A.
Eldest son of the »6th Earl of Crawford. Trustee of National Portrait Galler>f. ^ Art Galleries. Hon. Secretary, Society for Protection of Ancient Buildings. Author of Donatella ; &c. L
B. R. SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), Assoc.lNST.C.E., M.lNST.M.E. [
Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, the Home Office and the Indian Office. •) Asphalt. President, Society Chemical Ind., 1907-1908. I
C. AT. CRANNTNG ARNOLD. /Australia: Aborigines.
University College, Oxford. Barrister-at-law. Author of The American Egypt. (.
C. B.* CHARLES B£MONT, D.-£s-L., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.). J Annals; Anselme;
See the biographical article: BEMONT, CHARLES. \ Arbois de Jubalnville; AulanL
C. Ch. CHARLES CHREE, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. f Atmospheric Electricity;
Superintendent, Observatory Department, National Physical Laboratory. Formerly-, »uror, pnl»rR Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. President, Physical Society of London. (. m
'A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
v
1971
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
C. EL SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGECUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. r
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Scholar of Balliol, Oxford, 1881-1885. Hertford, Boden, Ireland, Craven and Derby Scholar. Fellow of Trinity. Third] Secretary Embassy at St Petersburg, 1888-1892; Constantinople, 1893-1898. 1 Asia: History. Commissioner for British East Africa, 1900-1904. Author of Turkey in Europe; Letters from the Far East.
C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Arms anj Armour: Firearms-
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxfard. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal ~] .-„ Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. ( **al* Artillery.
C. H. Rd. CHARLES HERCULES READ, LL.D. (St Andrews).
Keeper of British and Medieval Antiquities and Ethnography, British Museum. J Archaeology President of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Past President of the Anthro- I pological Institute. Author of Antiquities from Benin; &c.
C. Pf. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-is-L. [ Antrustion-
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author -{ . of Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. ( AUStrasia.
C. PL REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. f
Fellow of Corpus Christi^Colle|e, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1901. Author of Life •{ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
and Times of Alfred the Great; <
C. W.* CHARLES WALDSTEIN, M.A., D.LITT., PH.D. f
Sladc Professor of Fine Art, Cambridge. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. I Aronc* Tl,, He,n Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, 1883-1889. Director of the 1 American Archaeological School at Athens, 1889-1893. I
C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1897). f
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary Ararat;
Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com-J Armenia'
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-] . .
General of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartum; Asia Minor. Life of Lord Clive; &c.
D. C. B. DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER. f
Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon;^ Antwerp. India in the igth Century; History of Belgium; &c. I
D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The -j Aria. Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. [
D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. r
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Antioch; Apamea; Arabgir; Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899-! Asia Minor* Aspendus' and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at . Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
D. H. DAVID HANNAY. f Anson, Baron;
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal J. Antonio Prior of CratO' Navy, 2217-1688; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c. { ^^ Count of Arfflada
E. Br. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. r
Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of -j Aulic Council. Meiton College.
E. B. T. EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, F.R.S., D.C.L. (Oxon.). f Anthronoloirv
See the biographical article : TYLOR, E. B. \
E. C.B. RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dubl.). r Anthony, Saint; Augustinian
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. -\ Canons; Augustinian
I Hermits; Augustinians.
Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER D.LITT (Oxon.). r Arbaces; Ardashir; Arsaces;
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des A-,.BC. Artahanne- Alterthums; Forschungen zur alien Geschichte; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; DieJ. ArM Jsraeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme; &c. Artaphernes; Artaxerxes;
I Astyages.
E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.. , .
See the biographical article: GOSSE, E. W. J Asb]ornsen and Moe;
E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. \ Assonance-
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Aneurvsnv
Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cam- •<
bridge, Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. I Appendicitis.
E. P. H.* ERNEST PRESCOT HILL, M.lNST.C.E.
Member of the firm of G. A. Hill & Sons, Civil Engineers, London. | Aqueduct : Modern.
E. R. L. SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc. (Oxon.) LL.D.
Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906.
Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905. Author of Degeneration ; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c.
Arachnida; Arthropoda.
E. Tn. REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON (d. 1907).
Author of The English Black Marks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits i»-j Aquaviva, Claudio. England; &c.
E. V. L. EDWARD VERRALL LUCAS. f Austen, Jane.
Editor of Letters of Charles and Mary Lamb. Author of Life of Charles Lamb. \
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xii
r. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A. D.Th. (GicMen). [ AoolnUnc; Armenian Chnrek;
Formerly Frllow of (Jnivcnii •<! I .!!.•»• of the Brituh Academy. •< Armenian Language and
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Arutotlt; Myth, Magic and Uorali; ftc. | Literature; Asceticism.
F. 0. P. FREDERICK GYMZR PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F R.ANTHROP INST.
Vice- President Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I Anatomy at St Thomat'i Hospital and the London School of Medicine for -j Artortot. U'omi-n. Formerly Kxaminrr in the Universities of Cambridge, Aberdeen, London and Birmingham; and Huntcrian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I
F. H. Ne. FRANCIS HENRY NEVILLE, M.A., F.R.S.
Fellow of Sidney Sunex College, Cambridge, and Lecturer on Physics and \ Atom. Chemistry. [
F. LJ. 0. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A.
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaco- I Anubis; Apis; logical Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of the Imperial German 1 Assiut; Assuan. Archaeological Institute. I
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. } ......
Author of South Africa from Ike Great Trek to the Union.
f. T. M. SIR FRANK T. MARZIALS, C.B.
Formerly Accountant-General of the Army. Author of Lives of Victor Huto-A Angler, G. V. E. Moliere; Dickens; &c. (.
F. W. Mo. FREDERICK WALKER MOTT, F.R.S., M.D.
Physician to Charing Cross Hospital. Pathologist to the London County Asylums. • Apoplexy. Fullcrian Professor of Physiology at the Royal Institution.
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Asbestos;
Atacamlte.
DERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. \ President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
G. C. B. GILBERT CHARLES BOURNE, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., D.Sc. (Oxon.).
Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford. Fellow of Morton < Anthozoa. College, Oxford.
G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. 5 ._ n- .
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brascnose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. i "
G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. ' Ant;
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. President of the "j A..*!.. Association of Economic Biologists. Author of Insects: their Structure and Life. [ Apwra.
G. H. Fo. GEORGE HERBERT FOWLER, F.Z.S., F.L.S., PH.D.
Formerly Berkeley Fellow of Owens College, Manchester, and Assistant Professor -\ Aquarium, of Zoology at University College, London. l_
G. K. GUSTAV KRUGER, Ph.D. j Arlns; Athanasins;
Professor of Church History, University of Giessen. Author of Das Papsttum; &c. ( Augustine, Saint (of Hippo I.
G. Sn. GRANT SHOWERMAN; PH.D. (
Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin. Author of The Great Mother of\ Attis. the Gods. [_
G. W. B. GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD, A.M.
Professor in Columbia University, New York. Author of The Roman Assemblies \ Areopagus. (1909) ;&c.
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
'Antara ibn Shad dad;
Arabia: Antiquities, History, Literature ; Arabian Philo- sophy (in part) ; A'Sha;
. Ash' An; Asma'I; Assassin.
H. B. HILARY BAUERMANN, F.G.S. (d. 1009).
Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of -I Anthracite. A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron.
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. r .__,„ -..,,. _., n,llr<u
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of J Ar»'U' E«ls the Encyclopaedia Britannica; co-editor of the loth edition. [ (in part): Asquith, H. H.
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D.
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. J Archaeopteryx. Author of Amphibia and Reptiles.
H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D. ( ._.
See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F.
H. F. T. REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A., F.R.G.S.
Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Corre- J spending Member of Historical Society of Greece. Author of Lectures on the Geo- | graphy of Greece ; History of A ncient Geography. Editor of Finiay's History of Greece. |_
H. Ha. HEB HART AuctioM
H. H. S. HENRY HEATHCOTE STATHAM, F.R.I.B.A.
Editor of The Builder. Author of Architecture (Modem) fot General Readers'.} Architecture: Modem. Modern Architecture; &c.
H. M. C. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A.
Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of Studies on Anglo- J Angli; Anglo-Saxons. Saxon Institutions.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
H. H. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc. (Oxon.), F.R.G.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). f ,
Professor of Geography, University College, Reading. Author of Elementary •j Atlantic ucean. Meteorology; Papers on Oceanography; &c.
H. Se. HENRI SEE. f .ni.B nf Rrit»nnw
Professor in the University of Rennes. j Ann
H. Sm. HUGH SHERINGHAM. J
Angling Editor of The Field (London). \ Angling.
I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, j ... D T .. . Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera- 1 Asner Ben Jemei. ture ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. I
I. B. B. ISAAC BAYLEY BALFOUR, F.R.S., M.D. f
King's Botanist in Scotland. Regius Keeper of Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.
Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Regius Professor of S Angiosperms (in part). Botany in the University of Glasgow, 1879-1884. Sherardian Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford,, 1884-1888.
J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f Archean System;
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. \ Arenig Group.
J. A. R. VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, M.A., D.D.
Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's J ...-fi-i..- A__I«» , «f College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Norrisian 1 ATlSUQes, Apology 01. Professor of Divinity. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation ; &c. I
J. B. T. SIR JOHN BATTY TUKE, M.D., LL.D. (Edin.), D.Sc. (Dubl.) f
President of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom. Medical Director J Aphasia.
of New Saughton Hall Asylum, Edinburgh. M.P. for the Universities of Edinburgh I
and St Andrews, 1900-1910. J. Bn. JOHN BILSON. f Architecture: Romanesque and
External Examiner in Architecture, University of Manchester. \ Gothic, in England.
J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f
Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders J Athens; of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the | Athos. Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. I
J. D. Pr. JOHN DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D. f
Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York. Took part in J Assur (Biblical), the Expedition to Southern Babylonia, 1888-89. Author of A Critical Commentary 1 on the Book of Daniel; Assyrian Primer. I
J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. f
Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1896. -| Angora. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Joint-author of Studica Pontica.
J. G. F. SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH. J" Arnold, Matthew (in part).
See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR JOSHUA G. t
J. G. H. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. J" Annealing.
Author of Plating and Boiler Making ; &c. \
J. G. Sc. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. f
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma, al AraKan. Handbook ; The Upper Burma Gazetteer ; &c.
J. H. A. H. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. f Archelaus, King of Judaea;
Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of St John's College, Cambridge. \ Asmoneus; Assideans.
J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. J Annalists; Aphrodite; Apollo;
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. \ Artemis; Athena.
J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). J Arllndp, Earldom Of
Author of Feudal England; Peerage and Pedigree; &c. \ *™ lel> fiar
J. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lrrr.D. r
Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures! A „_„-.,„ Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I; Napoleonic Studies; The Development of] AU&er( the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; Chapters in the Cambridge Modern History. [
J. I. JULES ISAAC. f . . of Prance
Professor of History at the Lycde of Lyons. \ Ann
J. L. W. Miss JESSIE L. WESTON. /Arthur (King);
Author of Arthurian Romances. "^ Arthurian Legend.
J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Aq"ed"Ct:, A™e? an*n
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J Medieval ; Aquinas, T College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. (tn Part>> Arcnon; Arms
L and Armour: Ancient.
J. Mac. JAMES MACQUEEN. ,-
Member and Fellow of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. Professor of Surgery at the Royal Veterinary College, London. Examiner for the Fellowship J »_«,,.,_ Diploma of the R.C.V.S. Editor of Fleming's Operative Veterinary Surgery (2nd 1 edition); Dun's Veterinary Medicines (loth edition); and Neumann's Parasites and | Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals (2nd edition). L
J. P. E. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. C
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Member, of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elemenlaire d'histoire du droit frans ais ; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix
J. S. B. JACOH S \MII i. RALI.IN. / Anor«nUe««hln
I'.iiui.li-i .ni'l lion. Sec. of the National Institution of Apprenticeship, London. |^ "'
J. S. P. JOHN Surni FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S.
to the Geological Survey. Formerly !.«•< tun-r on IVtroloty in Edin- J
IVtmxr.ipirr to te eoogca urvey. ormery .«•< tun-r on Vtrooty n n- hurah University. Neill M-dallist of th<- Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigtby ) Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
J. SI.* REV. JAMES SIBREE. / Antananari»o
Author of Madagascar and its People; &c. L
J. V. B. JAMES VF.RNON BARTLET, M.A.. D.D. (St Andrews). f Annul..-
Professor of Church History. Mansfield College. Oxford. Author of The Apostolic \ £* ^ Plther>
. I ./' . i\ i .
J. W. G. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, F.R.S., D.Sc.
Professor of Geology. University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and J Australia: Physical Mineralogy, University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart oj 1 Geography.
Australia; Australasia.
J. W. He. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEAOLAM, M.A.
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly ]
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at Arnim, Count.
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German I
Empire; &c.
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. / Arghoul; Asor; Aulos.
Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra.
L. H.* LOOTS HALPHEN, D.-is-L.
Lecturer on Medieval History at the University of Bordeaux. Formerly Secretary , Anjou. of the Ecole dcs Chartcs, Paris.
f Anhydrite; Ankerite;
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. Annabergite; Anorthite;
Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex -J Apatite; Apophyllite; College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. Aragonite; Argent ite:
[ Argyrodite; Augite.
L. M. Br. Louis MAURICE BRANDIN, M.A. / *nai..v.... _ , „,
Fielden Professor of French and of Romance Philology in the University of London. \ An&lo- «•
L. W. LUCIEN WOLF.
Vice- President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Formerly President of ~j Anti-Semitism. the Society. Joint editor of the BMiotheca Anglo-Judaica. I
M. G. MOSES CASTER.
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899,; 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and
Byzantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folklore Society of England." Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira; The Hebrew Version of Secretum Secrelorum of Aristotle.
Anthim the Iberian.
M. H. C. MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, K.C., D.C.L. f
President of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General J Arhitntinn Council of the Bar and Council of Legal Education. Late Chairman, Incorporated 1 Council of Law Reporting. Honorary Fellow St John's College, Oxford. L
M. J. De G. MICHAEL JAN DE GOEJE. / Arabia- Literature (in t>arf\
See the biographical article : GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE. I *
M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. (Leipzig). f Ann- Assur (G«f>-
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Rtliiion-\ V '. of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. I AS"010gy.
M. L. H. LADY HUGGINS. / ATOIIU- A<<rni»Rn
See the biographical article: HUGGINS, SIR WILLIAM.
M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. f A«.II«- »r^v,-H-,n
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. \ ** Joint author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. ( Anstodemus; Aristomene*.
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. f Aratuf of Sicyon; Arcadia;
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Binning- J Argos: History; ham University, 1005-1908. Author of chapters on Greek History in The Year's j Aristides the Just; Work in Classical Studies. ^ Athens (in fart).
M. P.* L£ON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. f
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary to the Institute-; Aumale, Due d". of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).
N. M. NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. r
Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Christ 'sCollegc, Cambridge. University Lecturer J »nhraales in Aramaic. Examiner for the Oriental Languages Tripos and the Theological "] "P™1 Tripos at Cambridge.
N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. f Animal-Worship;
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the I . . Societd d'Anthropologic de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and] Animism. Marriage in A ustralia ; &c.
X
0. Ba.
0. Br. P. A.
P. A. K. P. C. M.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A.
Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Honourable Society of Baronetage.
OSCAR BRILIANT.
Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of
{Arms and Armour: English.
Austria: Statistics.
PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. f
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, I ApOStOIlCi;
Paris. Author of Les Idees morales chez les heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII* \ Arnold of Brescia.
siecle. I
P.C.Y
P.O. P. Gi.
P. La. P.VL
R.
R. A. S. M. R. A. W.
R. C. J. R. G. R. H. C.
R. I. P. R. J. M. R.L.*
R. Ma. R. N. B.
R. N. W. R. P. S.
PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVTTCH KROPOTKIN.
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE PETER A.
PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London from 1903. University Demon- strator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894.; at London Hospital, 1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892- 1896, 1901-1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.
PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
{ Aral;
Astrakhan.
PERCY GARDNER, Lirr.D., LL.D.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
PETER GILES, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University Reader in Comparative Philology. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology.
PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S.
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites. Translator and editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology.
PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L. (Oxford), LL.D. (Cambridge and Harvard).
Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence in the University of Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Honorary Professor of History in the University of Moscow. Author of Villainage in England; English Society in the nth Century; &c.
THE RIGHT HON. LORD RAYLEIGH.
See the biographical article: RAYLEIGH, 3RD BARON.
ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund.
COLONEL ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.M.G., C. I. E.
Served in the Afghan War, 1878-1880; with the Hazara Expeditions, 1888 and 1891; with the Tirah Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, &c. Commissioner for the Aden Boundary Delimitation.
SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD C.
RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D.
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD.
REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., Lrrr.D. (Oxon.).
Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Professor of Biblical Greek at Trinity College, Dublin, 1898-1906. Author of Critical History of a Future Life ; &c.
REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S., F.L.S. J
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.
RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Editor of the St James's Gazette (London).
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum ; J The Deer of all Lands; &c.
I Animal; 1 Annelida.
Anglesey, 1st Earl of; Anne, Queen; Anne of Cleves; Anne of Denmark; Antrim, 1st Marquess of; Argyll, Earls and Dukes of; Arlington, Earl of.
Apelles. Aryan.
{Apennines; Asia: Geology; Austria: Geology.
J Anglo-Saxon Law.
Argon. ' Ascalon.
Arabia: Modern History; Asir.
: Aristophanes.
J Anthology; Apotheosis.
REV. ROBERT MACKINTOSH, M.A., D.D.
Professor at Lancashire Independent College, Manchester.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883—1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, IJIJ-IQOO; The First Romanovs, -j 1613 to 1725; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469
f~ rrvn/\. S,~
RALPH NICHOLSON WORNUM (1812-1877). Keeper of the National Gallery, 1854-1877.
Author of The Epochs of Painting; &c.
R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
Apocalyptic Literature; Apocryphal Literature.
Ant-lion; Aphides. Australia: Recent Legislation.
Antelope; Arsinoitherium; Artiodactyla; Aurochs. Anthropomorphism; Apolo- getics; Apotheosis(j»/w7). Anne, Empress of Russia; Apraksin, T. M.; Arakcheev, A. A., Count; Arany, Janos; Armfelt, G. M., Count.
Arabesque.
Apse; Arcade;
I Architecture.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. Po.
R. S. R. S. C.
R. TT.
S. A. C.
RENE POOTARDIN, D.-is-L.
Secretary of the Ecole de» Charter Honorary Librarian at ihr BibluxhAquc ] Ark*. Kingdom ol. National. Paris.
LBUT.-GEN. SIR RICHARD STRACHXY, R.E., G.C.S.I., LL.D., F.R.S. See the biographical ankle: STRACIIEY, SIR R.
Climate, Flora atU
ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.Lm. (Cantab.).
ProfcMor of Latin in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin J Apulia: Arckaeology; in University College, Cardiff. Fellow of Gonvillc and Caius College. Cambridge. 1 ArlcinJ; Auruncl. Author of The Italic Dialects. I
ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A.
I. How and l.iMurrr in Classics, Worcester College. Oxford. of Chrut Church, Oxford.
Formerly Scholar
Aries.
S. C. S. H. STC.
Sw.
T. A. C. T. A.L
Ark; Asa; Asher; Astarte.
Art.
T. As.
T. Ba.
T.Ca.
T. H. T. H. H.»
T. L.H.
T. M. L.
T. W.-D. T. W. R. D.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, Cxmville and I'.iiii- College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908; Council of Royal Asiatic Society,1 1004-1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
SIDNEY COLVIN, M.A., D.Lrrr.
See the biographical article: COLVIN, SIDNEY. SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc., D.C.L. (Oxon.). f Astronomy: Descriptive
See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. \ Astrophysics.
VISCOUNT ST CYRES. / Arnauld • Family
See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF.
THE RIGHT HON. LORD SWAYTHLINO (Sra SAMUEL MONTAGU).
M.P. for Whitechapel, 1885-1900. Founder of the firm of Samuel Montagu & Co., -j ATDltrage. Bankers, London.
TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O.
Agent-General for New South Wales. President of Australasian Association for the . Australia. Advancement of Science (Economics and Statistics), 1902. Author of The Seren Colonies of Australia; Statistical Account of Australia and New Zealand.
THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. Assienats.
Trinity College, Dublin. \
Antium; Appia Via; Apulia: History; Aqueduct: Roman; Aquileia; Aquino; Ardea; Arezzo; Ariano di Puglia; Aricia; Ariminum; Arpi; Arpino; Arretium; Ascoli Piceno; Asisium; Assisi; Astura; Ateste; Aufldena; Augusta (Sicily); Augusta Bagiennorum; Augusta Praetoria Salassonim; Aurelia, Via.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.).
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Author of numerous articles in the Papers of the British School at Rome; The Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna; &c.
SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c- M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.
THOMAS CASE, M.A.
President of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Formerly \Vaynflete Professor of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy at Oxford. Author of Physical Realism ; &c.
THOMAS HODGKTN, LL.D., D.Lrrr.
See the biographical article: HODGKIN, T.
COL. SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's Award; &c.
SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. (Cantab.).
Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D.
Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Author of History of the Reformation ; Life of Luther ; &c.
WALTER THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON.
See the biographical article : WATTS-DUNTON, W. T.
T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, M.A., PH.D., LL.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester. President of J Asoka. the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian | of Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; &c. L
Angary; Annexation. Asylum, Right ol.
Aristotle.
Attila.
j Asia: Orography and Ethnology.
f Anthemius;
Apollonius of Perga; [ Archimedes.
- Aquinas, Thomas. Arnold, Matthew.
XI 1
W. A. B. C.
W. A. P
W. Bo
W. Cr. W. E. Co.
W. E. E. W. F. C.
W. F. Sh. W. H. Be.
W. H. Di. W. J. F.
W. Ma. W. M. R. W. P. R.
W. R. L.
W. W. W. W. F.*
W. W. R.*
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS B RE vooRTCooLiDGE, M.A.,F.R.G.S., HON. PH.D. (Bern). C Annecy; Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's Antibes* College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du haul dauphine; The Range of-{ Annon '•• the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in pp History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. I Arnaud, Henri.
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f
Principal Assistant Editor of the nth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. I Archbishop; Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College, Oxford, and Senior Scholar of St John's 1 Archdeacon. College. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. I
WlLHELM BOUSSET, D.THEOL.
Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen. Author of Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend; &c.
WALTER CRANE.
See the biographical article: CRANE, WALTER.
RIGHT REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, D.D., BISHOP OF GIBRALTAR Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, London. St John s and Selwyn Colleges, Cambridge. Author of The Beginnings of Christianity.
MAJOR WILLIAM EGERTON EDWARDS.
Captain and Brevet Major, Royal Field Artillery. Inspector, Inspection Staff, Wool- wich Arsenal. Lecturer on Armour and Explosives at the Royal Naval War College, Greenwich, 1904-1909.
WILLIAM FEILDEN CRATES, M.A.
Barrister-at-law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). Author of Crates on Statute Law.
WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A., D.Sc.
Senior Examiner under the Board of Education. Senior Wrangler, 1884. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.). f
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. I Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c.
WILLIAM HENRY DINES, F.R.S.
WILLIAM JUSTICE FORD, M.A. (d. 1904).
Formerly,, Scholar of St John's College, Cambridge. .Head Master of Leamington J College.
SIR WILLIAM MARKBY, K.C.I.E., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: MARKBY, SIR W. \
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. f
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. 1
Antichrist.
f Arts and Crafts; \ Art Teaching.
-\ Apostolical Constitutions.
Armour Plates.
Appeal.
Formerly j Arithmetic.
HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES.
Director, London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Author of A History of New Zealand.
W. R. LETHABY, F.S.A.
Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County Council. Author of A rchitecture. Mysticism and Myth ; &c.
WILLIAM WALLACE, M.A.
See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (d. 1897).
WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c.
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, Lie. THEOL.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
Angel; Atonement.
Anemometer.
Archery.
Austin, John.
Angelico, Fra.
Atkinson, Sir Henry Albert.
Architecture: Romanesque and Gothic in France.
Arabian Philosophy (in part).
Anna Perenna; Argei.
Antioch, Synods of; Aries, Synod of; Augsburg, Confession of.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Anglican Communion. Angola. Annuity. Anselm. Antimony. Apothecary. Arabs.
Arbitration and Concilia- tion in Labour Disputes.
Argenson: Family.
Ariosto.
Arizona.
Arkansas.
Arsenic.
Arthur, Chester Alan.
Art Sales.
Arundel, Earls of.
Arya Samaj.
Asparagus.
Aspern-Essling.
Assam.
Assembly.
Assets.
Assize.
Association of Ideas.
Asthma.
Athletic Sports.
Atholl, Earls and Dukes
of.
Atlas Mountains. Attainder. Atterbury, Francis. Audit and Auditor.
Augurs.
Augustan History. Aungervyle, R. Aurangzeb. Aurelian. Auricula. Auscultation. Austerlitz.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME II
ANDROS, SIR EDMUND (1637-1714), English colonial governor in America, was born in London on the 6th of December 1637, son of Amice Andros, an adherent of Charles I., and the royal bailiff of the island of Guernsey. He served for a short time in the army of Prince Henry of Nassau, and in 1660-1662 was gentleman in ordinary to the queen of Bohemia (Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I. of England). He then served against the Dutch, and in 1672 was commissioned major in what is said to have been the first English regiment armed with the bayonet. In 1674 he became, by the appointment of the duke of York (later James II.), governor of New York and the Jerseys, though his jurisdiction over the Jerseys was disputed, and until his recall in 1681 to meet an unfounded charge of dishonesty and favouritism in the collection of the revenues, he proved himself to be a capable administrator, whose imperious disposi- tion, however, rendered him somewhat unpopular among the colonists. During a visit to England in 1678 he was knighted. In 1686 he became governor, with Boston as his capital, of the " Dominion of New England," into which Massachusetts (in- cluding Maine), Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Hampshire were consolidated, and in 1688 his jurisdiction was extended over New York and the Jerseys. But his vexatious interference with colonial rights and customs aroused the keenest resentment, and on the i8th of April 1689, soon after news of the arrival of William, prince of Orange, in England reached Boston, the colonists deposed and arrested him. In New York his deputy, Francis Nicholson, was soon afterwards deposed by Jacob Leisler (?.».); and the inter-colonial union was dissolved. Andros was sent to England for trial in 1690, but was immediately released without trial, and from 1692 until 1698 he was governor of Virginia, but was recalled through the agency of Commissary James Blair (q.v.), with whom he quarrelled. In 1693-1694 he was also governor of Maryland. From 1704 to 1706 he was governor of Guernsey. He died in London in February 1714 and was buried at St Anne's, Soho.
See The Andros Tracts (3 vols., Boston. 1869-1872).
ANDROS, or ANDRO, an island of the Greek archipelago, the most northerly of the Cyclades, 6 m. S.E. of Euboea, and about 2 m. N. of Tenos; it forms an eparchy in the modern kingdom of Greece. It is nearly 25 m. long, and its greatest breadth is 10 ra. Its surface is for the most part mountainous, with many fruitful and well-watered valleys. Andros, the capital, on the east coast, contains about 2000 inhabitants. The ruins of Palaeopolis, the ancient capital, are on the west coast ; the town 11. i
possessed a famous temple, dedicated to Bacchus. The island has about 18,000 inhabitants.
The island in ancient times contained an Ionian population, perhaps with an admixture of Thracian blood. Though originally dependent on Eretria, by the 7th century B.C. it had become sufficiently prosperous to send out several colonies to Chalcidice (Acanthus, Stageirus, Argilus, Sane). In 480 it supplied ships to Xerxes and was subsequently harried by the Greek fleet. Though enrolled in the Delian League it remained disaffected towards Athens, and in 447 had to be coerced by the settlement of a deruchy. In 411 Andros proclaimed its freedom and in 408 withstood an Athenian attack. As a member of the second Delian League it was again controlled by a garrison and an archon. In the Hellenistic period Andros was contended for as a frontier-post by the two naval powers of the Aegean Se», Macedonia and Egypt. In 333 it received a Macedonian garrison from Antipater; in 308 it was freed by Ptolemy I. In the Chremonidean War (266-263) it passed again to Macedonia after a battle fought off its shores. In 200 it was captured by a com- bined Roman, Pergamene and Rhodian fleet, and remained a possession of Pergamum until the dissolution of that kingdom in 133 B.C. Before falling under Turkish rule, Andros was from A.D. 1207 till 1566 governed by the families Zeno and Sommariva under Venetian protection.
ANDROTION (c. 350 B.C.), Greek orator, and one of the leading politicians of his time, was a pupil of Isocrates and a con- temporary of Demosthenes. He is known to us chiefly from the speech of Demosthenes, in which he was accused of illegality in proposing the usual honour of a crown to the Council of Five Hundred at the expiration of its term of office. Androtion filled several important posts, and during the Social War was appointed extraordinary commissioner to recover certain arrears of taxes. Both Demosthenes and Aristotle ( Rhrt. iii. 4) speak favourably of his powers as an orator. He is said to have gone into exile at Megara, and to have composed an AUhis, or annalist ic account of Attica from the earliest times to his own days (Pausanias vi. 7 ; x. 8). It is disputed whether the annalist and orator are identical, but an Androtion who wrote on agriculture is certainly a different person. Professor Gaetano de Sanctis (in L'AUide di Andrmione e un papiro di Oxyrhynchos, Turin, 1008) attributes to Androtion, the atthidographer, a 4th-century historical frag- ment, discovered by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt (Oxyrkyncktu Papyri, vol. v.). Strong arguments against this view are set forth by E. M. Walker in the Classical Review, May 1908.
ANDUJAR— ANEMOMETER
ANDtJJAR (the anc. Sliturgi), a town of southern Spain, in the province of Ja6n; on the right bank of the river Guadal- quivir and the Madrid-Cordova railway. Pop. (1000) 16,302. Andujar is widely known for its porous earthenware jars, called alcarrazas, which keep water cool in the hottest weather, and are manufactured from a whitish clay found in the neighbourhood.
ANECDOTE (from av-, privative, and <K5i5o>/u, to give out or publish), a word originally meaning something not published. It has now two distinct significations. The primary one is something not published, in which sense it has been used to denote either secret histories — Procopius, e.g., gives this as one of the titles of his secret history of Justinian's court — or portions of ancient writers which have remained long in manuscript and are edited for the first time. Of such anecdota there are many collections; the earliest was probably L. A. Muratori's, in 1709. In the more general and popular acceptation of the word, however, anecdotes are short accounts of detached interesting particulars. Of such anecdotes the collections are almost infinite; the best in many respects is that compiled by T. Byerley (d. 1826) and J. Clinton Robertson (d. 1852), known as the Percy Anecdotes (1820-1823).
ANEL, DOMINIQUE (1670-1730), French surgeon, was born at Toulouse about 1679. After studying at Montpellier and Paris, he served as surgeon-major in the French army in Alsace; then after two years at Vienna he went to Italy and served in the Austrian army. In 1710 he was teaching surgery in Rouen, whence he went to Genoa, and in 1716 he was practising in Paris. He died about 1 730. He was celebrated for his successful surgical treatment of fistula lacrymalis, and while at Genoa invented for use in connexion with the operation the fine-pointed syringe still known by his name.
ANEMOMETER (from Gr. &PCJKK, wind, and nerpov, a measure), an instrument for measuring either the velocity or the pressure of the wind. Anemometers may be divided into two classes, (i) those that measure the velocity, (2) those that measure the pressure of the wind, but inasmuch as there is a close connexion between the pressure and the velocity, a suitable anemometer of either class will give information about both these quantities.
Velocity anemometers may again be subdivided into two classes, (i) those which do not require a wind vane or weather- cock, (2) those which do. The Robinson anemometer, invented (1846) by Dr Thomas Romney Robinson, of Armagh Observatory, is the best-known and most generally used instrument, and belongs to the first of these. It consists of four hemispherical cups, mounted one on each end of a pair of horizontal arms, which lie at right angles to each other and form a cross. A vertical axis round which the cups turn passes through the centre of the cross; a train of wheel-work counts up the number of turns which this axis makes, and from the number of turns made in any given time the velocity of the wind during that time is calculated. The cups are placed symmetrically on the end of the arms, and it is easy to see that the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it; the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross also faces the wind, but the pressure on it is naturally less, and hence a continual rotation is produced; each cup in turn as it comes round providing the necessary force. The two great merits of this anemometer are its simplicity and the absence of a wind vane ; on the other hand it is not well adapted to leaving a record on paper of the actual velocity at any definite instant, and hence it leaves a short but violent gust unrecorded. Unfortunately, when Dr Robinson first designed his anemometer, he stated that no matter what the size of the cups or the length of the arms, the cups always moved with one-third of the velocity of the wind. This result was apparently confirmed by some independent experi- ments, but it is very far from the truth, for it is now known that the actual ratio, or factor as it is commonly called, of the velocity of the wind to that of the cups depends very largely on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have almost any value between two and a little over three. The result has been that wind velocities published in many official publications have often been in error by nearly 50%.
The other forms of velocity anemometer may be described as belonging to the windmill type. In the Robinson anemometer the axis of rotation is vertical, but with this subdivision the axis of rotation must be parallel to the direction of the wind and therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfil the same purpose must be em- ployed. This type of instrument is very little used in England, but seems to be more in favour in France. In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in the ventilating shafts of mines and buildings for instance, these anemometers, known, however, as air meters, are employed, and give most satisfactory results.
Anemometers which measure the pressure may be divided into the plate and tube classes, but the former term must be taken as including a good many miscellaneous forms. The simplest type of this form consists of a flat plate, which is usually square or circular, while a wind vane keeps this exposed normally to the wind, and the pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The distortion of the spring determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or leaves a record in the ordinary way by means of a pen writing on a sheet of paper moved by clockwork. Instruments of this kind have been in use for a long series of years, and have recorded pressures up to and even exceeding 60 Ib per sq. ft., but it is now fairly certain that these high values arc erroneous, and due, not to the wind, but to faulty design of the anemometer.
The fact is that the wind is continually varying in force, and while the ordinary pressure plate is admirably adapted for measuring the force of a steady and uniform wind, it is entirely unsuitable for following the rapid fluctuations of the natural wind. To make matters worse, the pen which records the motion of the plate is often connected with it by an extensive system of chains and levers. A violent gust strikes the plate, which is driven back and carried by its own momentum far past the position in which a steady wind of the same force would place it ; by the time the motion has reached the pen it has been greatly exaggerated by the springiness of the connexion, and not only is the plate itself driven too far back, but also its position is wrongly recorded by the pen; the combined errors act the same way, and more than double the real maximum pressure may be indicated on the chart.
A modification of the ordinary pressure-plate has recently been designed. In this arrangement a catch is provided so that the plate being once driven back by the wind cannot return until released by hand; but the catch does not prevent the plate being driven back farther by a gust stronger than the last one that moved it. Examples of these plates are erected on the west coast of England, where in the winter fierce gales often occur; a pres- sure of 30 Ib per sq. ft. has not been shown by them, and instances exceeding 20 Ib are extremely rare.
• Many other modifications have been used and suggested. Probably a sphere would prove most useful for a pressure anemometer, since owing to its symmetrical shape it would not require a weathercock. A small light sphere hanging from the end of 30 or 40 ft. of fine sewing cotton has been employed to measure the wind velocity passing over a kite, the tension of the cotton being recorded, and this plan has given satisfactory results.
Lind's anemometer, which consists simply of a (J tube contain- ing liquid with one end bent into a horizontal direction to face the wind, is perhaps the original form from which the tube class of instrument has sprung. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it causes an increase of pressure inside and also of course an equal increase in all closed vessels with which the mouth is in air- tight communication. If it blows horizontally over the open end of a vertical tube it causes a decrease of pressure, but this fact is not of any practical use in anemometry, because the magnitude of the decrease depends on the wind striking the tube exactly at right angles to its axis, the most trifling departure from the true direction causing great variations in the magnitude. The pressure tube anemometer (fig. i) utilizes the increased pressure in the open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind, and the decrease
ANEMONE— ANERIO
of pressure caused inside when the wind blow* over a ring of small holes drilled through the metal of a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. The pressure differences on which the action depends are very small, and special means are required to register thrm, but in the ordinary form of recording anemometer (fig. 3), any wind capable of turning the vane which keeps the mouth of the tube facing the wind is capable of registration.
The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any convenient position, no matter how far from the external part. Two connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as though one connexion would serve, but the differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the record- ing part is placed has to be considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room, in which the doors and windows are carefully dosed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be pro- duced equal to a wind of 10 m. an hour; and the opening of a
Fie
FIG. 3.
window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely alter the registration.
The connexion between the velocity and the pressure of the wind is one that is not yet known with absolute certainty. Many text-books on engineering give the relation P = -005 if when P is the pressure in Ib per sq. ft. and v the velocity in miles per hour. The history of this untrue relation is curious. It was given about the end of the i8th century as based on some experiments, but with a footnote stating that Little reliance could be placed on it. The statement without the qualifying note was copied from book to book, and at last received general acceptance. There is no doubt that under average conditions of atmospheric density, the .005 should be replaced by -003, for many independent authorities using different methods have found values very dose to this last figure. It is probable that the wind pressure is not strictly proportional to the extent of the surface exposed. Pressure plates are generally of moderate size, from a half or quarter of a sq. ft. up to two or three sq. ft., are round or square, and for these sizes, and shapes, and of course for a flat surface, the relation P = .003 11 is fairly correct.
In the tube anemometer also it is really the pressure that is measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale. In cases where the density of the air is not of average value, as on a high mountain, or with an exceptionally low barometer for example, an allowance must be made. Approximately i$% should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft. that it stands above sea-level. (W. H. Di.)
ANEMONE, or \VixD-Fi.owT.t (from the Gr. AMJM, wind), a genus of the buttercup order (Kanunculaceme), containing •bout ninety species in the north and south temperate lones. Anemont ntmorosa, wood anemone, and A. PuttaiMa, Pasque-flower, occur in Britain ; the latter is found on chalk downs and Imnrton* pastures in some of the more southern and eastern counties. The plants are perennial herbs with an underground rootslock, and radical, more or less deeply cut, leaves. The elongated flower stem bears one or several, white, red, blue or rarely yellow, flowers; there is an involucre of three leaflets below each flower. The fruits often bear long hairy styles which aid their distribution by the wind. Many of the spedes are favourite garden plants; among the best known is Anemone coronaria, often called the poppy anemone, a tuberous-rooted plant, with parsley-like divided leaves, and large showy poppy-like blossoms on stalks of from 6 to 9 in. high; the flowers are of various colours, but the principal are scarlet, crimson, blue, purple and white. There are also double-flowered varieties, in which the stamens in the centre arc replaced by a tuft of narrow petals. It is an old garden favourite, and of the double forms there are named varieties. They grow best in a loamy soil, enriched with well-rotted manure, which should be dug in below the tubers. These may be planted in October, and for succession in January, the autumn-planted ones being protected by a covering of leaves or short stable litter. They will flower in May and June, and when the leaves have ripened should be taken up into a dry room till planting time. They are easily raised from the seed, and a bed of the single varieties is a valuable addition to a flower-garden, as it affords, in a warm situation, an abundance of handsome and often brilliant spring flowers, almost as early as the snowdrop or crocus. The genus contains many other lively spring-blooming plants, of which A. hortensis and A. fulgent have less divided leaves and splendid rosy-purple or scarlet flowers; they require similar treatment. Another set is represented by A. PtdsaliUa, the Pasque-flower, whose violet blossoms have the outer surface hairy; these prefer a calcareous soil. The splendid A. japonica, and its white variety called Honorine Joubert, the latter especially, are amongst the finest of autumn-blooming hardy perennials; they grow well in light soil, and reach 2} to 3 ft. in height, blooming continually for several weeks. A group of dwarf species, represented by the native British A. ntmorosa and A. apennina, are amongst the most beautiful of spring flowers for planting in woods and shady places.
The genus llcpatica is now generally included in anemone as a subgenus. The plants are known in gardens as bepatiras, and are varieties of the common South European A. Hepattca; they are charming spring-flowering plants with usually blue flowers.
ANENCLETUS, or ANACLETUS, second bishop of Rome. About the 4th century he is treated in the catalogues as two persons — Anacletus and Cletus. According to the catalogues he occupied the papal chair for twelve years (c. 77-88).
ANERIO, the name of two brothers, musical composers, very great Roman masters of 16th-century polyphony. Felice, the elder, was born about 1560, studied under G. M. Nanino and succeeded Palestrina in 1504 as composer to the papal chapel Several masses and motets of his are printed in Proske's Uusua Divina and other modern anthologies, and it is hardly too much to say that they are for the most part worthy of Palestrina himself. The date of his death is conjecturally given as 1630. His brother, Giovanni Francesco, was born about 1567, and seems to have died about 1620. The occasional attribution of some of his numerous compositions to his elder brother is a pardonable mistake, if we may judge by the works that have been reprinted. But the statement, which continues to be repeated in standard works of reference, that " he was one of the first of Italians to use the quaver and its subdivisions " is incompre- hensible. Quavers were common property in all musical countries quite early in the i6th century, and semiquavers appear in a madrigal of Palestrina published in 1 574. The two brothers are probably the latest composers who handled 16th-century musk as their mother-language; suffering neither from the temptation
ANET— ANGEL
to indulge even in such mild neologisms as they might have learnt from the elder brother's master, Nanino, nor from the necessity of preserving their purity of style by a mortified negative asceticism. They wrote pure polyphony because they understood it and loved it, and hence their work lives, as neither the progressive work of their own day nor the reactionary work of their imitators could live. The i2-part Stabal Mater in the seventh volume of Palestrina's complete works has been by some authorities ascribed to Felice Anerio.
ANET, a town of northern France, in the department of Eure-et-Loir, situated between the rivers Eure and Vegre, 10 m. N.E. of Dreux by rail. Pop. (1906) 1324. It possesses the remains of a magnificent castle, built in the middle of the i6th century by Henry II. for Diana of Poitiers. Near it is the plain of Ivry, where Henry IV. defeated the armies of the League in 1590.
ANEURIN, or ANEIRIN, the name of an early 7th-century British (Welsh) bard, who has been taken by Thomas Stephens (1821-1875), the editor and translator of Aneurin's principal epic poem Gododin, for a son of Gildas, the historian. Gododin is an account of the British defeat (603) by the Saxons at Cattraeth (identified by Stephens with Dawstane hi Liddesdale), where Aneurin is said to have been taken prisoner; but the poem is very obscure and is differently interpreted. It was translated and edited by W. F. Skene hi his Four Ancient Books of Wales (1866), and Stephens' version was published by the Cymmro- dorion Society hi 1888. See CELT: Literature (Welsh).
ANEURYSM, or ANEURISM (from Gr. avtvpiopa.. a dilata- tion), a cavity or sac which communicates with the ulterior of an artery and contains blood. The walls of the cavity are formed either of the dilated artery or of the tissues around that vessel. The dilatation of the artery is due to a local weakness, the result of disease or injury. The commonest cause is chronic inflamma- tion of the inner coats of the artery. The breaking of a bottle or glass hi the hand is apt to cut through the outermost coat of the artery at the wrist (radial) and thus to cause a local weakening of the tube which is gradually followed by dilatation. Also when an artery is wounded and the wound in the skin and superficial structures heals, the blood may escape into the tissues, displacing them, and by its pressure causing them to condense and form the sac- wall. The coats of an artery, when diseased, may be torn by a severe strain, the blood escaping into the condensed tissues which thus form the aneurysmal sac.
The division of aneurysms into two classes, true and false, is unsatisfactory. On the face of it, an aneurysm which is false is not an aneurysm, any more than a false bank-note is legal tender. A better classification is into spontaneous and traumatic. The man who has chronic inflammation of a large artery, the result, for instance, of gout, arduous, straining work, or kidney- disease, and whose artery yields under cardiac pressure, has a spontaneous aneurysm; the barman or window-cleaner who has cut his radial artery, the soldier whose brachial or femoral artery has been bruised by a rifle bullet or grazed by a bayonet, and the boy whose naked foot is pierced by a sharp nail, are apt to be the subjects of traumatic aneurysm. In those aneurysms which are a saccular bulging on one side of the artery the blood may be induced to coagulate, or may of itself deposit layer upon layer of pale clot, until the sac is obliterated. This laminar coagulation by constant additions gradually fills the aneurysmal cavity and the pulsation hi the sac then ceases; contraction of the sac and its contents gradually takes place and the aneurysm is cured. But in those aneurysms which are fusiform dilatations of the vessel there is but slight chance of such cure, for the blood sweeps evenly through it without staying to deposit clot or laminated fibrine.
In the treatment of aneurysm the aim is generally to lower the blood pressure by absolute rest and moderated diet, but a cure is rarely effected except by operation, which, fortunately, is now resorted to more promptly and securely than was previously the case. Without trying the speculative and dangerous method of treatment by compression, or the application of an indiarubber bandage, the surgeon now without loss of time cuts down upon the
artery, and applies an aseptic ligature close above the dilatation. Experience has shown that this method possesses great advantages, and that it has none of the disadvantages which were formerly supposed to attend it. Saccular dilatations of arteries which are the result of cuts or other injuries are treated by tying the vessel above and below, and by dissecting out the aneurysm. Pop- liteal, carotid and other aneurysms, which are not of traumatic origin, are sometimes dealt with on this plan, which is the old " Method of Antyllus " with modern aseptic conditions. Speak- ing generally, if an aneurysm can be dealt with surgically the sooner that the artery is tied the better. Less heroic measures are too apt to prove painful, dangerous, ineffectual and dis- appointing. For anturysm in the chest or abdomen (which cannot be dealt with by operation) the treatment may be tried of injecting a pure solution of gelatine into the loose tissues of the armpit, so that the gelatine may find its way into the blood stream and increase the chance of curative coagulation in the distant aneurysmal sac. (E. O.*)
ANFRACTUOSITY (from Lat. anfractuosus, winding), twisting and turning, circuitousness; a word usually employed in the plural to denote winding channels such as occur in the depths of the sea, mountains, or the fissures (sulci) separating the convolutions of the brain, or, by analogy, hi the mind.
ANGARIA (from &yyapos, the Greek form of a Babylonian word adopted in Persian for " mounted courier "), a sort of postal system adopted by the Roman imperial government from the ancient Persians, among whom, according to Xenophon (Cyrop. viii. 6; cf. Herodotus viii. 98) it was established by Cyrus the Great. Couriers on horseback were posted at certain stages along the chief roads of the empire, for the transmission of royal despatches by night and day in all weathers. In the Roman system the supply of horses and their maintenance was a compulsory duty from which the emperor alone could grant exemption. The word, which in the 4th century was used for the heavy transport vehicles of the cursus publicus, and also for the animals by which they were drawn, came to mean generally "compulsory service." So angaria, angariare, hi medieval Latin, and the rare English derivatives " angariate," " angaria- tion," came to mean any service which was forcibly or unjustly demanded, and oppression in general.
ANGARY (Lat. jus angariae; FT. droit d'angarie; Ger. Angarie; from the Gr. iyyapeia, the office of an &yyapos, courier or messenger), the name given to the right of a belligerent to seize and apply for the purposes of war (or to prevent the enemy from doing so) any kind of property on, belligerent territory, including that which may belong to subjects or citizens of a neutral state. Art. 53 of the Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, annexed to the Hague Convention of 1899 on the same subject, provides that railway plant, land telegraphs, telephones, steamers and other ships (other than such as are governed by maritime law), though belonging to companies or private persons, may be used for military opera- tions, but " must be restored at the conclusion of peace and indemnities paid for them." And Art. 54 adds that " the plant of railways coming from neutral states, whether the property of those states or of companies or private persons, shall be sent back to them as soon as possible." These articles seem to sanction the right of angary against neutral property, while limiting it as against both belligerent and neutral property. It may be considered, however, that the right to use implies as wide a range of contingencies as the " necessity of war " can be made to cover. (T. BA.)
ANGEL, a general term denoting a subordinate superhuman being in monotheistic religions, e.g. Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and in allied religions, such as Zoroastrianism. In polytheism the grades of superhuman beings are continuous; but in mono- theism there is a sharp distinction of kind, as well as degree, between God on the one hand, and all other superhuman beings on the other; the latter are the " angels."
" Angel " is a transcription of the Gr. ayyt^os, messenger. ayyeXos in the New Testament, and the corresponding mal'akh in the Old Testament, sometimes mean " messenger," and
ANGEL
sometimes " angel," and this double sense is duly represented in the English Versions. " Angel " is also used in the Knglish Version for vs» 'Abbir, Ps. Uxviii. 75. (lit. " mighty "), for own 'Elokim, Ps. viii. 5, and for the obscure \*# thin' an, in IV Ixviii. 17.
In the later development of the religion of Israel, 'Elohim is almost entirely reserved for the one true God; but in earlier times 'Elohim (gods), bnl 'Elokim, btil Elim (sons of gods, i.e. members of the class of divine beings) were general terms for superhuman beings. Hence they came to be used collectively of superhuman beings, distinct from Yahwch, and therefore inferior, and ultimately subordinate.1 So, too, the angels arc styled " holy ones,"1 and " watchers,"' and are spoken of as the " host of heaven " 4 or of " Yahweh." * The " hosts," n*9? SebaOth in the title Yakwek Sebaoth, Lord of Hosts, were probably at one time identified with the angels.4 The New Testament often speaks of "spirits," rvtb no.ro..1 In the earlier periods of the religion of Israel, the doctrine of monotheism had not been formally stated, so that the idea of " angel " in the modern sense docs not occur, but we find the Mal'akh Yakwek, Angel of the Lord, or Mai'akh Elokim, Angel of God. The Mal'akh Yakwek is an appearance or manifestation of Yakwek in the form of a man, and the term MaTakh Yahweh is used interchangeably with Yahweh (cf. Exod. iii. 2, with iii. 4; xiii. 21 with xiv. 19). Those who see the Mai'akh Yakwek say they have seen God." The Mai'akh Yahweh (or Elohim) appears to Abraham, Hagar, Moses, Gideon, &c., and leads the Israelites in the Pillar of Cloud.* The phrase Mai'akh Yakwek may have been originally a courtly circumlocution for the Divine King; but it readily became a means of avoiding crude anthropomorphism, and later on, when the angels were classified, the Mai'akh Yahweh came to mean an angel of distinguished rank.10 The identificaton of the Mai'akh Yahweh with the LO&OS, or Second Person of the Trinity, is not indicated by the references in the Old Testament ; but the idea of a Being partly identified with God, and yet in some sense distinct from Him, illustrates the tendency of religious thought to distinguish persons within the unity of the Godhead, and foreshadows the doctrine of the Trinity, at any rate in some slight degree.
In the earlier literature the Mai'akh Yahweh or Elohim is almost the only mal'akh (" angel ") mentioned. There are, however, a few passages which speak of subordinate superhuman beings other than the Mai'akh Yahweh or Elohim. There are the cherubim who guard Eden. In Gen. rviii., xix. (J) the appearance of Yahweh to Abraham and Lot is connected with three, afterwards two, men or messengers; but possibly in the original form of the story Yahweh appeared alone." At Bethel, Jacob sees the angels of God on the ladder," and later on they appear to him at Mahanaim.13 In all these cases the angels, like the Mai'akh Yahweh, are connected with or represent a theo- phany. Similarly the " man " who wrestles with Jacob at Peniel is identified with God.14 In Isaiah vi. the seraphim, superhuman beings with six wings, appear as the attendants of Yahweh. Thus the pre-exilic literature, as we now have it, has little to say about angels or about superhuman beings other than Yahweh and manifestations of Yahweh; the pre-exilic prophets hardly mention angels.1* Nevertheless we may well suppose that the popular religion of ancient Israel had much to say of super- human beings other than Yahweh, but that the inspired writers have mostly suppressed references to them as unedifying. Moreover such beings were not strictly angels.
1 E.g. Gen. vi. 2; Job i. 6; Ps. viii. 5, xxix. I. * Zech. xiv. 5.
I Dan. iv. 13. 4 Deut. xvii. 3 (?). • Josh. v. 14 (?).
• The identification of the " hosts ' with the stars comes to the same thing; the stars were thought of as closely connected with angels. It is probable that the hosts " were also identified with the armies of Israel.
' Rev. i. 4. • Gen. xxxii. 30; Judges xiii. 22.
• Exod. in. 2, xiv. 19. lo Zcch. i. n f.
II Cf. xviii. i with xviii. 2, and note change of number in xix. 17 u Gen. xx viii. 12, E. " Gen. xxxii. i, E. "Gen.
umber in xix. 17. i. xxxii. 24, 30, I. Mai'akh Yalvxh,
*• " An angel " of i Kings xiii. 18 might be the Mai'akh as in xix. 5, cf. 7, or the passage, at any rate in its present form, may be exilic or post-exilic.
The doctrine of monotheism was formally expressed in the period immediately before and during the Exile, in Deuteronomy1* and Isaiah"; and at the same time we find angel* prominent in Ezckicl who, as a prophet of the Exile, may have been influenced by the hierarchy of supernatural beings in the Babylonian religion, and perhaps even by the angelology of ZoroMtrianism.1* Ezekicl gives elaborate descriptions of cherubim1*; and in one of his visions he tees seven angels execute the judgment of God upon Jerusalem." As in Genesis they are styled " men," maTakh for " angel " does not occur in Ezekicl. Somewhat later, in the visions of Zechariah, angels play a great pan; they are some- times spoken of as " men," sometimes as mal'akh, and the Mai'akh Yahweh seems to hold a certain primacy among them." Satan also appears to prosecute (so to speak) the High Priest before the divine tribunal." Similarly in Job the bni Elokim. sons of God, appear as attendants of God, and amongst them Satan, still in his role of public prosecutor, the defendant being Job." Occasional references to " angels " occur in the Psalter*4 ; they appear as ministers of God.
In Ps. Ixxviii. 49 the " evil angels " of A. V. conveys a false impression; it should be "angels of evil," as R.V., i.e. angels who inflict chastisement as ministers of God.
The seven angels of Ezckicl may be compared with the seven eyes of Yahweh in Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10. The latter have been connected by Ewald and others with the later doctrine of seven chief angels**, parallel to and influenced by the Ameshaspentas ( Amesha Spenta) , or seven great spirits of the Persian mythology , but the connexion is doubtful.
In the Priestly Code, c. 400 B.C., there is no reference to angels apart from the possible suggestion in the ambiguous plural in Genesis i. 26.
During the Persian and Greek periods the doctrine of angels underwent a great development, partly, at any rate, under foreign influences. In Daniel, c. 160 B.C., angels, usually spoken of as " men " or " princes," appear as guardians or champions of the nations; grades are implied, there are " princes " and " chief " or " great princes " ; and the names of some angels are known, Gabriel, Michael; the latter is pre-eminent**, he is the guardian of Judah. Again in Tobit a leading part is played by Raphael, " one of the seven holy angels."*7
In Tobit, too, we find the idea of the demon or evil angel. In the canonical Old Testament angels may inflict suffering as ministers of God, and Satan may act as accuser or tempter; but they appear as subordinate to God, fulfilling His will; and not as morally evil. The statement** that God "chargeth His angels with folly " applies to all angels. In Daniel the princes or guardian angels of the heathen nations oppose Michael the guardian angel of Judah. But in Tobit we find Asmodacus the evil demon, TO icovripbv oainoviov, who strangles Sarah's husbands, and also a general reference to " a devil or evil spirit," TvtDAio.** The Fall of the Angels is not properly a scriptural doctrine, though it is based on Gen. vi. 2, as inter- preted by the Book of Enoch. It is true that the bni Elohim of that chapter arc subordinate superhuman beings (cf. above), but they belong to a different order of thought from the angels of Judaism and of Christian doctrine; and the passage in no way suggests that the bne Elohim suffered any loss of status through their act.
The guardian angels of the nations in Daniel probably represent the gods of the heathen, and we have there the first step of the process by which these gods became evil angels, an idea expanded by Milton in Paradise Lost. The development of ihe doctrine of an organized hierarchy of angels belongs to the Jewish litera- ture of the period 200 B.C. to A.D. 100. In Jewish apocalypses especially, the imagination ran riot on the rank, classes and names of angels; and such works as the various books of Enoch and
14 Deut. vi. 4, 5. " Isaiah xliii. 10 Ac.
n It is not however certain that these doctrines of Zoroast nanism were developed at so early a date.
» E«k. i. x. » Ezek. ix. « Zech. i. 1 1 f. » Zech. iii. i.
*• Job i., ii. Cf. i Chron. xri. l. *4 Pss. xci. n. ciii. 20 Ac.
' Tobit xii. 15; Rev. viii. 2. » Dan. viii. 16, x. 13. 2O.2I.
» Tob. xii. 15. » Job iv. 18. " Tobit iii. 8. 17. vi. 7.
ANGEL— ANGELICO
the Ascension of Isaiah supply much information on this subject.
In the New Testament angels appear frequently as the ministers of God and the agents of revelation1; and Our Lord speaks of angels as fulfilling such functions2, implying in one saying that they neither marry nor are given in marriage.* Naturally angels are most prominent in the Apocalypse. The New Testa- ment takes little interest in the idea of the angelic hierarchy, but there are traces of the doctrine. The distinction of good and bad angels is recognized; we have names, Gabriel4, and the evil angels Abaddon or Apollyon6, Beelzebub6, and Satan'; ranks are implied, archangels', principalities and powers9, thrones and dominions10. Angels occur in groups of four or seven11. In Rev. i.-iii. we meet with the "Angels " of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably guardian angels, standing to the churches in the same relation that the " princes " in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the " angels " are personifications of the churches. A less likely view is that the " angels " are the human representatives of the churches, the bishops or chief presbyters. There seems, however, no parallel to such a use of " angel," and it is doubtful whether the mon- archical government of churches was fully developed when the Apocalypse was written.
Later Jewish and Christian speculation followed on the lines of the angelology of the earlier apocalypses; and angels play an important part in Gnostic systems and in the Jewish Mid- rashim and the Kabbala. Religious thought about the angels during the middle ages was much influenced by the theory of the angelic hierarchy set forth in the De Hierarchic Celesti, written in the 5th century in the name of Dionysius the Areopagite and passing for his. The creeds and confessions do not formulate any authoritative doctrine of angels; and modern rationalism has tended to deny the existence of such beings, or to regard the subject as one on which we can have no certain knowledge. The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the existence of beings intermediate between man and God.
The Old Testament says nothing about the origin of angels; but the Book of Jubilees and the Slavonic Enoch describe their creation; and, according to Col. i. 16, the angels were created in, unto and through Christ.
Nor does the Bible give any formal account of the nature of angels. It' is doubtful how far Ezekiel's account of the cherubim and Isaiah's account of the seraphim are to be taken as descriptions of actual beings; they are probably figurative, or else subjective visions. Angels are constantly spoken of as " men," and, including even the Angel of Yahweh, are spoken of as discharging the various functions of human life; they eat and drink", walku and speak14. Putting aside the cherubim and seraphim, they are not spoken of as having wings. On the other hand they appear and vanish15, exercise miraculous powers16, and fly17. Seeing that the anthropomorphic language used of the angels is similar to that used of God, the Scriptures would hardly seem to require a literal interpretation in either case. A special association is found, both in the Bible and elsewhere, between the angels and the heavenly bodies18, and the elements or elemental forces, fire, water, &c19. The angels are infinitely numerous10.
The function of the angels is that of the supernatural servants of God, His agents and representatives; the Angel of Yahweh, as we have seen, is a manifestation of God. In old times, the bne Elohim and the seraphim are His court, and the angels are alike the court and the army of God; the cherubim are his throne-bearers. In his dealings with men, the angels, as their
1 E.g. Matt. i. 20 (to Joseph), iv. n (to Jesus), Luke i. 26 (to Mary), Acts xii. 7 (to Peter).
I E.g. Mark viii. 38, xiii. 27. l Mark xii. 25. 4 Luke i. 19. • Rev. ix. II. • Mark iii. 22. ' Mark i. 13.
8 Michael, Jude 9. • Rom. viii. 38 ; Col. ii. 10.
» Col. i. 1 6. " Rev. vii. I. " Gen. xviii. 8.
II Gen. xix. 16. " Zech. iv. I. " Judgss vi. 12, 21. " Rev. vii. I. viii. " Rev. viii. 13, xiv. 6.
M Job xxxviii. 7; Asc. of Isaiah, iv. 18; Slav. Enoch, iv. I. M Rev. xiv. 18, xvi. 5; r»ossibly Gal. iv. 3; Col. ii. 8, 20. 10 Ps. Ixviii. 17; Dan. vii. 10.
name implies, are specially His messengers, declaring His will and executing His commissions. Through them he controls nature and man. They are the guardian angels of the nations; and we also find the idea that individuals have guardian angels21. Later Jewish tradition held that the Law was given by angels22. According to the Gnostic Basilides, the world was created by angels. Mahommedanism has taken over and further elaborated the Jewish and Christian ideas as to angels.
While the scriptural statements imply a belief in the existence of spiritual beings intermediate between God and men, it is probable that many of the details may be regarded merely as symbolic imagery. In Scripture the function of the angel overshadows his personality; the stress is on their ministry; they appear in order to perform specific acts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See the sections on " Angels " in the handbooks of O. T. Theology by Ewald, Schultz, Smend, Kayser-Marti, &c. ; and of N. T. Theology by Weiss, and in van Oosterzee's Dogmatics. Also commentaries on special passages, especially Driver and Bevan on Daniel, and G. A. Smith, Minor Prophets, ii. 310 ff. ; and articles s.v. " Angel " in Hastings' Bible Dictionary, and the Encyclopaedia Biblica. (W. H. BE.)
ANGEL, a gold coin, first used in France (angelot, ange) in 1340, and introduced into England by Edward IV. in 1465 as a new issue of the " noble," and so at first called the " angel-noble." It varied in value between that period and the time of Charles I. (when it was last coined) from 6s. 8d. to los. The name was derived from the representation it bore of St Michael and the dragon. The angel was the coin given to those who came to be touched for the disease known as king's evil; after it was no longer coined, medals, called touch-pieces, with the same device, were given instead.
ANGELICA, a genus of plants of the natural order Umbelliferae, represented in Britain by one species, A . syhestris, a tall perennial herb with large bipinnate leaves and large compound umbels of white or purple flowers. The name Angelica is popularly given to a plant of an allied genus, Archangelica officinalis, the tender shoots of which are used in making certain kinds of aromatic sweetmeats. A ngelica balsam is obtained by extracting the roots with alcohol, evaporating and extracting the residue with ether. It is of a dark brown colour and contains angelica oil, angelica wax and angelicin, CigHaoO. The essential oil of the roots of Angelica archangelica contains /3-terebangelene, CioHu, and other terpenes; the oil of the seeds also contains /3-terebangelene, together with methylethylacetic acid and hydroxymyristic acid.
The angelica tree is a member of the order Avaliaceae, a species of Aralia (A. spinosa), a native of North America; it grows 8 to 12 ft. high, has a simple prickle-bearing stem forming an umbrella-like head, and much divided leaves.
ANGELICO, FRA (1387-1455), Italian painter. II Beato Fra Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole is the name given to a far-famed painter-friar of the Florentine state in the isth century, the representative, beyond all other men, of pietistic painting. He is often, but not accurately, termed simply " Fiesole," which is merely the name of the town where he first took the vows; more often Fra Angelico. If we turn his compound designation into English, it runs thus—" the Beatified Friar John the Angelic of Fiesole." In his lifetime he was known no doubt simply as Fra Giovanni or Friar John; " The Angelic " is a laudatory term which was assigned to him at an early date, — we find it in use within thirty years after his death; and, at some period which is not defined in our authorities, he was beatified by due ecclesiastical process. His baptismal name was Guido, Giovanni being only his name in religion. He was born at Vicchio, in the Tuscan province of Mugello, of unknown but seemingly well-to-do parentage, in 1387 (not 1390 as sometimes stated); in 1407 he became a novice in the convent of S. Domenico at Fiesole, and in 1408 he took the vows and entered the Dominican order. Whether he had previously been a painter by profession is not certain, but may be pronounced probable. The painter named Lorenzo Monaco may have contributed to his art-training, and the influence of the Sienese school is discernible in his work.
81 Matt, xviii. 10; Acts xii. 15. B Gal. iii. 19 ; Heb. ii. 2 ; LXX. of Deut. xxxiii. 2.
ANGELICO
According to Vasari, the first paintings of this artist were in the Ortosa of Florence; none such exist there now. His earliest extant performances, in considerable number, are at Cortona, whither he was sent during his novitiate, and here apparently he spent all the opening years of his monastic life. His first works executed in fresco were probably those, now destroyed, which he painted in the convent of S. Domenico in this city; as a fresco- painter, he may have worked under, or as a follower of, Gherardo Stamina. From 1418 to 1436 he was back at Ficsole; in 1436 he was transferred to the Dominican convent of S. Marco in Florence, and in 1438 undertook to paint the altarpiece for the choir, followed by many other works; he may have studied about this time the renowned frescoes in the Brancacci chapel in the Florentine church of the Carmine and also the paintings of Orcagna. In or about 1445 he was invited by the pope to Rome. The pope who reigned from 1431 to 1447 was Eugenius IV., and he it was who in 1445 appointed another Dominican friar, a colleague of Angclico. to be archbishop of Florence. If the story (first told by Vasari) is true — that this appointment was made at the suggestion of Angelico only after the archbishopric had been offered to himself, and by him declined on the ground of his inaptitude for so elevated and responsible a station — Eugenius, and not (as stated by Vasari) his successor Nicholas V., must have been the pope who sent the invitation and made the offer to Fra Giovanni, for Nicholas only succeeded in 1447. The whole statement lacks authentication, though in itself credible enough. Certain it is that Angelico was staying in Rome in the first half of 1447; and he painted in the Vatican the Cappella del Sacra- mento, which was afterwards demolished by Paul HI. In June 1447 he proceeded to Orvieto, to paint in the Cappella Nuova of the cathedral, with the co-operation of his pupil Benozzo Gozzoli. He afterwards returned to Rome to paint the chapel of Nicholas V. In this capital he died in 1455, and he lies buried in the church of the Minerva.
According to all the accounts which have reached us, few men on whom the distinction of beatification has been conferred could have deserved it more nobly than Fra Giovanni. He led a holy and self-denying life, shunning all advancement, and was a brother to the poor; no man ever saw him angered. He painted with unceasing diligence, treating none but sacred subjects; he never retouched or altered his work, probably with a religious feeling that such as divine providence allowed the thing to come, such it should remain He was wont to say that he who illustrates the acts of Christ should be with Christ. It is averred that he never handled a brush without fervent prayer and he wept when he painted a Crucifixion. The Last Judgment and the Annunciation were two of the subjects he most frequently treated.
Bearing in mind the details already given as to the dates of Fra Giovanni's sojournings in various localities, the reader will be able to trace approximately the sequence of the works which we now proceed to name as among his most important productions. In Florence, in the convent of S. Marco (now converted into a national museum), a series of frescoes, beginning towards 1443; in the first cloister is the Crucifixion with St Dominic kneeling; and the same treatment recurs on a wall near the dormitory; in the chapterhouse is a third Crucifixion, with the Virgin swooning, a composition of twenty life-sized figures — the red background, which has a strange and harsh effect, is the misdoing of some restorer; an " Annunciation," the figures of about three-fourths of life-size, in a dormitory; in the adjoining passage, the " Virgin enthroned," with four saints; on the wall of a cell, the " Corona- tion of the Virgin," with Saints Paul, Thomas Aquinas, Benedict, Dominic, Francis and Peter Martyr; two Dominicans welcom- ing Jesus, habited as a pilgrim; an " Adoration of the Magi "; the " Marys at the Sepulchre." All these works are later than the altarpiece which Angclico painted (as before mentioned) for the choir connected with this convent, and which is now in the academy of Florence; it represents the Virgin with Saints Cosmas and Damian (the patrons of the Medici family), Dominic, Peter, Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and Stephen; the pediment illustrated the lives of Cosmas and Damian, but it has long been
•evered from the main subject. I n the Uffizi gallery, an altarpiecr the Virgin (life-sued) enthroned, with the Infant and twelve angels. In S. Domenico, Fie*ole, * few frescoe*. ICM fine than those in S. Marco; alto an altarpiece in tempera of the Virgin and Child between Saints Peter, Thomas Aquinas, Dominic and Peter Martyr, now much destroyed. The subject which originally formed the predella of this picture has, since 1860, been in the National Gallery, London, and worthily represents there the hand of the saintly painter. The subject is a Glory, Christ with the banner of the Resurrection, and a multitude of saints, including, at the extremities, the saints or bcati of the Dominican order; here are no fewer than 366 figures or portions of figures, many of them having names inscribed. This predella was highly lauded by Vasari; still more highly another picture which used to form an altarpiece in Ficsole, and which now obtains world-wide celebrity in the Louvre — the " Coronation of the Virgin," with eight predella subjects of the miracles of St. Dominic. For the church of Santa Trinita, Florence, Angelico executed a " Depo- sition from the Cross," and for the church of the Angeli, a " Last Judgment," both now in the Florentine academy; for S. Maria Novella, a " Coronation of the Virgin," with a predella in three sections, now in the Uffizi, — this again is one of his masterpieces. In Orvieto cathedral he painted three triangular divisions of the ceiling, portraying respectively Christ in a glory of angels, sixteen saints and prophets, and the virgin and apostles: all these are now much repainted and damaged. In Rome, in the Chapel of Nicholas V., the acts of Saints Stephen and Lawrence; also various figures of saints, and on the ceiling the four evangelists. These works of the painter's advanced age, which have suffered somewhat from restorations, show vigour superior to that of his youth, along with a more adequate treatment of the architectural perspectives. Naturally, there are a number of works currently attributed to Angelico, but not really his; for instance, a " St Thomas with the Madonna's girdle," in the Lateran museum, and a " Virgin enthroned," in the church of S. Girolamo, Fiesole. It has often been said that he commenced and frequently practised as an illuminator; this is dubious and a presumption arises that illuminations executed by Giovanni's brother, Benedetto, also a Dominican, who died in 1448, have been ascribed to the more famous artist. Benedetto may perhaps have assisted Giovanni in the frescoes at S. Marco, but nothing of the kind is distinctly traceable. A folio series of engravings from these paintings was published in Florence, in 1852. Along with Gozzoli already mentioned, Zanobi Strozzi and Gentile da Fabriano are named as pupils of the Beato.
We have spoken of Angelico's ait as " pictistic "; this is in fact its predominant character. His visages have an air of rapt suavity, devotional fervency and beaming esoteric consciousness, which is intensely attractive to some minds and realizes beyond rivalry a particular ideal — that of ecclesiastical saintliness and detachment from secular fret and turmoil. It should not be denied that he did not always escape the pitfalls of such a method of treatment, the faces becoming sleek and prim, with a smirk of sexless religiosity which hardly eludes the artificial or even the hypocritical; on other minds, therefore, and these some of the most masculine and resolute, he produces little genuine impres- sion. After allowing for this, Angelico should nevertheless be accepted beyond cavil as an exalted typical painter according to his own range of conceptions, consonant with his monastic railing, unsullied purity of life and exceeding devoutness. Exquisite as he is in his special mode of execution, he undoubtedly falls far short, not only of his great naturalist contemporaries such as Masaccio and Lippo Lippi, but even of so distant a precursor as Giotto, in all that pertains to bold or life-like invention of a subject or the realization of ordinary appearances, expressions and actions — the facts of nature, as distinguished from the aspirations or contemplations of the spirit. Technically speaking, he had much finish and harmony of composition and colour, without corresponding mastery of light and shade, and his knowledge of the human frame was restricted. The brilliancy and fair light scale of his tints is constantly remarkable, combined with a free use of gilding; this conduces materially to that celestial character
8
ANGELL— ANGERS
which so pre-eminently distinguishes his pictured visions of the divine persons, the hierarchy of heaven and the glory of the redeemed.
Books regarding Fra Angelico are numerous. We may mention those by S. Beissel, 1895; V. M. Crawford, 1900; R. L. Douglas, 1900; I. B. Supino, 1901; D. Tumiati, 1897; G. Williamson, 1901.
(W. M. K.)
ANGELL, GEORGE THORNDIKE (1823-1909), American philanthropist, was born at Southbridge, Massachusetts, on the 5th of June 1823. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1846, studied law at the Harvard Law School, and in 1851 was admitted to the bar in Boston, where he practised for many years. In 1868 he founded and became president of the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, in the same year establishing and becoming editor of Our Dumb Animals, a journal for the promotion of organized effort in securing the humane treatment of animals. For many years he was active in the organization of humane societies in England and America. In 1882 he initiated the movement for the establishment of Bands of Mercy (for the promotion of humane treatment of animals), of which in 1008 there were more than 72,000 in active existence. In 1889 he founded and became president of the American Humane Education Society. He became well known as a criminologist and also as an advocate of laws for the safe- guarding of the public health and against adulteration of food. He died at Boston on the i6th of March 1909.
ANGEL-LIGHTS, in architecture, the outer upper lights in a perpendicular window, next to the springing; probably a corruption of the word angle-lights, as they are nearly triangular.
ANGELUS, a Roman Catholic devotion in memory of the Annunciation. It has its name from the opening words, Angelas Domini nuntiamt Mariae. It consists of three texts describing the mystery, recited as versicle and response alternately with the salutation " Hail, Mary!" This devotion is recited in the Catholic Church three times daily, about 6 A.M., noon and 6 P.M. At these hours a bell known as the Angelus bell is rung. This is still rung in some English country churches, and has often been mistaken for and alleged to be a survival of the curfew-bell. The institution of the Angelus is by some ascribed to Pope Urban II., by some to John XXII. The triple recitation is ascribed to Louis XI. of France, who in 1472 ordered it to be thrice said daily.
ANGELUS SILESIUS (1624-1677), German religious poet, was born in 1624 at Breslau. His family name was Johann Scheffler, but he is generally known by the pseudonym Angelus Silesius, under which he published his poems and which marks the country of his birth. Brought up a Lutheran, and at first physician to the duke of Wurttemberg-Oels, he joined in 1652 the Roman Catholic Church, in 1661 took orders as a priest, and became coadjutor to the prince bishop of Breslau. He died at Breslau on the 9th of July 1677. In 1657 Silesius published under the title Heilige Seelenlust, oder geisttiche Hirtenlieder der JrttAren/wumtwtetoenPjycAe (1657), a collection of 205 hymns, the most beautiful of which, such as, Liebe, die du mich zum Bilde deiner Gottheit hast gemacht and Mir nach, spricht Christus unser Held, have been adopted in the German Protestant hymnal More remarkable, however, is his Geistreiche Sinn-und SMuss reime (1657), afterwards called Ckerubinischer Wandersmam (1674). This is a collection of " Reimspriiche " or rhymec distichs embodying a strange mystical pantheism drawn mainly from the writings of Jakob Bohme and his followers. Silesius delighted specially in the subtle paradoxes of mysticism. Thr essence of God, for instance, he held to be love; God, he said can love nothing inferior to himself; but he cannot be an objec of love to himself without going out, so to speak, of himself without manifesting his infinity in a finite form; in other words by becoming man. God and man are therefore essentially one A complete edition of Scheffler's works (Sdmtliche poetische Werke was published by D. A. Rosenthal, 2 vols. (Regensburg, 1862) Both the Cherubtnischer Wandersmann and Heilige Seelenlust hav been republished by G. Ellinger (1895 and 1901); a selection from the former work by O. E. Hartleben (1896). For further notice
f Silesius' life and work, see Hoffmann von Fallersleben in Wei- mar'sches Jahrbuch I. (Hanover, 1854) ; A. Kahlert, Angelus Silesius 1853); C. Seltmann, Angelus Silesius und seine Mystik (1896), and biog. by H. Mahn (Dresden, 1896).
ANGERMUNDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province I Brandenburg, on Lake Miinde, 43 m. from Berlin by the Berlin- Stettin railway, and at the junction of lines to Prenzlau, Freien- walde and Schwedt. Pop. (1900) 7465. It has three Protestant :hurches, a grammar school and court of law. Its industries :mbrace iron founding and enamel working. In 1420 the elector •"rederick I. of Brandenburg gained here a signal victory over the 'omeranians.
ANGERONA, or ANGERONIA, an old Roman goddess, whose name and functions are variously explained. According to ancient authorities, she was a goddess who relieved men from >ain and sorrow, or delivered the Romans and their flocks from mgina (quinsy) ; or she was the protecting goddess of Rome and the keeper of the sacred name of the city, which might not >e pronounced lest it should be revealed to her enemies; it was even thought that Angerona itself was this name. Modern scholars regard her as a goddess akin to Ops, Acca Larentia and 3ea Dia; or as the goddess of the new year and the returning sun (according to Mommsen, ab angerendo = 6.ir6 TOV &.va<t>tp«rOai r6i> %\u>v). Her festival, called Divalia or Angeronalia, was celebrated on the 2ist of December. The priests offered sacrifice in the temple of Volupia, the goddess of pleasure, in which stood a statue of Angerona, with a finger on her mouth, which was bound and closed (Macrobius i. 10; Pliny, Nat. Hist. lii. 9; Varro, L. L. vi. 23). She was worshipped as Ancharia at Faesulae, where an altar belonging to her has been recently discovered. (See FAESULAE.)
ANGERS, a city of western France, capital of the department of Maine-et-Loire, 191 m. S.W. of Paris by the Western railway to Nantes. Pop. (1906) 73,585. It occupies rising ground on 30th banks of the Maine, which are united by three bridges. The surrounding district is famous for its flourishing nurseries and market gardens. Pierced with wide, straight streets, well provided with public gardens, and surrounded by ample, tree- lined boulevards, beyond which lie new suburbs, Angers is one of the pleasantest towns in France. Of its numerous medieval buildings the most important is the cathedral of St Maurice, dating in the main from the I2th and I3th centuries. Between the two flanking towers of the west facade, the spires of which are of the i6th century, rises a central tower of the same period. The most prominent feature of the facade is the series of eight warriors carved on the base of this tower. The vaulting of the nave takes the form of a series of cupolas, and that of the choir and transept is similar. The chief treasures of the church are its rich stained glass (izth, i3th and 1 5 th centuries) and valuable tapestry (uth to i8th centuries). The bishop's palace which adjoins the cathedral contains a fine synodal hall of the i2th century. Of the other churches of Angers, the principal are St Serge, an abbey-church of the I2th and isth centuries, and La Trinite ( 1 2 th century) . The prefecture occupies the buildings of the famous abbey of St Aubin ; in its courtyard are elaborately sculptured arcades of the nth and i2th centuries, from which period dates the tower, the only survival of the splendid abbey- church. Ruins of the old churches of Toussaint (i3th century) and Notre-Dame du Ronceray (nth century) are also to be seen. The castle of Angers, an imposing building girt with towers and a moat, dates from the I3th century and is now used as an armoury. The ancient hospital of St Jean (i2th century) is occupied by an archaeological museum; and the Logis Barrault, a mansion built about 1500, contains the public library, the municipal museum, which has a large collection of pictures and sculptures, and the Mus6e David, containing works by the famous sculptor David d' Angers, who was a native of the town. One of his masterpieces, a bronze statue of Rene of Anjou, stands close by the castle. The H6tel de Pincfi or d'Anjou (1523-153°) is the finest of the stone mansions of Angers; there are also many curious wooden houses of the isth and i6th centuries. The palais de justice, the Catholic institute, a fine theatre, and
ANGERSTEIN— ANGIOSPERMS
» hospital with 1500 beds are the more remarkable of the modern buildings of the town. Angers is the seat of a bishopric, dating from the 3rd century, a prefecture, a court of appeal and a court of assizes. It has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of com- merce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France and several learned societies. Its educational institutions include ecclesiastical seminaries, ft lycee, a preparatory school of medidne and pharmacy, a uni- versity with free faculties (Jacidtts libra) of theology, law, letters and science, a higher school of agriculture, training colleges, a school of arts and handicrafts and a school of fine art. The prosperity of the town is largely due to the great slate-quarries of the vicinity, but the distillation of liqueurs from fruit, cable, rope and thread-making, and the manufacture of boots and shoes, umbrellas and parasols are leading industries. The weaving of sail-cloth and wooHen and other fabrics, machine construction, wire-drawing, and manufacture of sparkling wines and preserved fruits are also carried on. The chief articles of commerce, besides slate and manufactured goods, are hemp, early vegetables, fruit, flowers and live-stock.
Angers, capital of the Gallic tribe of the Andecavi, was under the Romans called Juliomagus. During the gth century it became the seat of the counts of An jou (q.v.) . It suffered severely from the invasions of the Northmen in 845 and the succeeding years, and of the English in the nth and isth centuries; the Huguenots took it in 1585, and the Vendean royalists were repulsed near it in 1793. Till the Revolution, Angers was the seat of a celebrated university founded in the I4th century.
See L. M. Thorode, Notice de la mile d' Angers (Angers, 1897).
ANGERSTEIN, JOHN JULIUS (1735-1822), London merchant, and patron of the fine arts, was born at St Petersburg and settled in London about 1749. His collection of paintings, consisting of about forty of the most exquisite specimens of the art, purchased by the British government, on his death, formed the nucleus of the National Gallery.
ANGILBERT (d. 814), Prankish Latin poet, and minister of Charlemagne, was of noble Prankish parentage, and educated at the palace school under Alcuin. As the friend and adviser of the emperor's son, Pippin, he assisted for a while in the govern- ment of Italy, and was later sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794 and 796. Although he was the father of two children by Charlemagne's daughter, Bertha, one of them named Nithard, we have no authentic account of his marriage, and from 790 he was abbot of St Riquier, where his brilliant rule gained for him later the renown of a saint. Angilbert, however, was little like the true medieval saint; his poems reveal rather the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying the closest intimacy with the imperial family. He accompanied Charlemagne to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to his will in 814. Angilbert was the Homer of the emperor's literary circle, and was the probable author of an epic, of which the fragment which has been preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting between Charlemagne and Leo III. It is a mosaic from Virgil, Ovid, Lucan and Fortunatus, composed in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius, and exhibits a true poetic gift. Of the shorter poems, besides the greeting to Pippin on his return from the campaign against the Avars (796), an epistle to David (Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The reference to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his salutation.
Angilbert's poems nave been published by E. Dummler in the Monuments Germanise Historiea. For criticisms of this edition see Traube in Roederer's Schrifitn fur germaniscJu Philologie (1888). See also A. Molinier. Les Sources de I hiitoire de France.
ANGINA PECTORIS (Latin for " pain of the chest "), a term applied to a violent paroxysm of pain, arising almost invariably in connexion with disease of the coronary arteries, a lesion causing progressive degeneration of the heart muscle (see HEART: Disease). An attack of angina pectoris usually comes on with a sudden seizure of pain, felt at first over the region of the heart, but radiating through the chest in various directions, and
frequently extending down the left arm. A feeling of constriction and of suffocation accompanies the pain, although there k seldom actual difficulty in breathing. When the attack comes on, as it often does, in the course of some bodily exertion, the sufferer is at once brought to rest, and during the continuance of the paroxysm experiences the most intense agony. The countenance becomes pale, the surface of the body cold, the pulse feeble, and death appears to be imminent, when suddenly the attack subsides and complete relief is obtained. The dura- tion of a paroxysm rarely exceeds two or three minutes, but ii may last for a longer period. The attacks are apt to recur on slight exertion, and even in aggravated cases without any such exciting cause. Occasionally the first seizure proves fatal; but more commonly death takes place as the result of repeated attacks. Angina pectoris is extremely rare under middle life, and is much more common in males than in females. It must always be regarded as a disorder of a very serious nature. In the treatment of the paroxysm, nitrite of amyl has now replaced all other remedies. It can be carried by the patient in the form of nitrite of amyl pearls, each pearl containing the dose prescribed by the physician. Kept in this way the drug does not lose strength. As soon as the pain begins the patient crushes a pearl in his handkerchief and holds it to his mouth and nose. The relief given in this way is marvellous and usually takes place within a very few seconds. In the rare cases where this drug does not relieve, hypodermic injections of morphia are used. But on account of the well-known dangers of this drug, it should only be administered by a medical man. To prevent recurrence of the attacks something may be done by scrupulous attention to the general health, and by the avoidance of mental and physical strain. But the most important preventive of all is " bed," of which fourteen days must be enforced on the least premonition of anginal pain.
Pseudo-angina. — In connexion with angina pectoris, a far more common condition must be mentioned that has now universally received the name of pseudo-angina, This includes the praecordial pains which very closely resemble those of true angina. The essential difference lies in the fact that pseudo- angina is independent of structural Hi<a-ga» of the heart and coronary arteries. In true angina there is some condition within the heart which starts the stimulus sent to the nerve centres. In pseudo-angina the starting-point is not the heart but some peripheral or visceral nerve. The impulse passes thence to the medulla, and so reaching the sensory centres starts a feeling of pain that radiates into the chest or down the arm. There are three main varieties: — (i) the reflex, (2) the vaso-motor, (3) the toxic. The reflex is by far the most common, and is generally due to irritation from one of the abdominal organs. An attack of pseudo-angina may be agonizing, the pain radiating through the chest and into the left arm, but the patient does not usually assume the motionless attitude of true angina, and the duration of the seizure is usually much longer. The treatment is that of the underlying neurosis and the prognosis is a good one, sudden death not occurring.
ANGIOSPERMS. The botanical term " Angiospcrm " (4<rr«Zor, receptacle, and airippa, seed) was coined in the form Angio- spcrmae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom, which included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, in contra- distinction to his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or scWzo-carpic fruits — the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Linnaeus with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope only became possible after Robert Brown had established in 1827 the existence of truly naked seeds in the Cycadeae and Coniferae, entitling them to be correctly called Gymnosperms. From that time onwards, so long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, but with varying limitation, as a group-name for other
10
ANGIOSPERMS
dicotyledonous plants. The advent in 1851 of Hofmeister's brilliant discovery of the changes proceeding in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and his determination of the correct relation- ships of these with the Cryptogamia, fixed the true position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the term Angiospenn then gradually came to be accepted as the suit- able designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than Gymnosperms, and as including therefore the classes of Dicoty- ledons and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is nowadays received and in which it is used here.
The trend of the evolution of the plant kingdom has been in the direction of the establishment of a vegetation of fixed habit and adapted to the vicissitudes of a life on land, and the Angio- sperms are the highest expression of this evolution and constitute the dominant vegetation of the earth's surface at the present epoch. There is no land-area from the poles to the equator, where plant-life is possible, upon which Angiosperms are not found. They occur also abundantly in the shallows of rivers and fresh-water lakes, and in less number in salt lakes and in the sea ; such aquatic Angiosperms are not, however, primitive forms, but are derived from immediate land-ancestors. Associated with this diversity of habitat is great variety hi general form and manner of growth. The familiar duckweed which covers the surface of a pond consists of a tiny green " thalloid " shoot, one, that is, which shows no distinction of parts — stem and leaf, and a simple root growing vertically downwards into the water. The great forest-tree has a shoot, which in the course perhaps of hundreds of years, has developed a wide-spreading system of trunk and branches, bearing on the ultimate twigs or branchlets innumerable leaves, while beneath the soil a widely-branching root-system covers an area of corresponding extent. Between these two extremes is every conceivable gradation, embracing aquatic and terrestrial herbs, creeping, erect or climbing hi habit, shrubs and trees, and representing a much greater variety than is to be found in the other subdivision of seed-plants, the Gymnosperms.
In internal structure also the variety of tissue-formation far exceeds that found in Gymnosperms (see PLANTS: Anatomy). The vascular bundles of the stem belong to the col- lateral type, that is to say, the elements of the wood or xylem and the bast or phloem stand side by side on the same radius. In the larger of the two great groups into which the Angiosperms are divided, the Dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue, known as cambium; by the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles (interfascicular cambium) a complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in thickness results from it by the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem soon becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists, and forms the great bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of growth — the so-called annual rings. In the smaller group, the Monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and scattered through the ground tissue. Moreover they contain no cambium and the stem once formed increases in diameter only in exceptional cases.
As in Gymnosperms, branching is monopodial; dichotomy or the forking of the growing point into two equivalent branches which replace the main stem, is absent both in the case of the stem and the root. The leaves show a remark- able variety in form (see LEAF), but are generally small in comparison with the size of the plant; exceptions occur in some Monocotyledons, e.g. in the Aroid family, where in some genera the plant produces one huge, much-branched leaf each season.
In rare cases the main axis is unbranched and ends in a flower, as, for instance, in the tulip, where scale-leaves, forming the
Internal
Vegetative organ*.
underground bulb, green foliage-leaves and coloured floral leaves are borne on one and the same axis. Generally, flowers are formed only on shoots of a higher order, often only on the ultimate branches of a much branched system. A potential branch or bud, either foliage or flower, is formed in the axil of each leaf; sometimes more than one bud arises, as for instance in the walnut, where two or three stand in vertical series above each leaf. Many of the buds remain dormant, or are called to development under exceptional circumstances, such as the destruction of existing branches. For instance, the clipping of a hedge or the lopping of a tree will cause to develop numerous buds which may have been dormant for years. Leaf-buds occasionally arise from the roots, when they are called adven- titious; this occurs in many fruit trees, poplars, elms and others. For instance, the young shoots seen springing from the ground around an elm are not seedlings but root-shoots. Frequently, as in many Dicotyledons, the primary root, the original root of the seedling, persists throughout the life of the plant, forming, as often in biennials, a thickened tap-root, as in carrot, or in perennials, a much-branched root system. In many Dicotyledons and most Monocotyledons, the primary root soon perishes, and its place is taken by adventitious roots developed from the stem.
The most characteristic feature of the Angiosperm is the flower, which shows remarkable variety in form and elaboration, and supplies the most trustworthy characters for the Fiower. distinction of the series and families or natural orders, into which the group is divided. The flower is a shoot (stem bearing leaves) which has a special form associated with the special function of ensuring the fertilization of the egg and the development of fruit containing seed. Except where it is terminal it arises, like the leaf-shoot, in the axil of a leaf, which is then known as a bract. Occasionally, as in violet, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf; it is then termed axillary. Generally, however, the flower-bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage leaf- bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system in which the bracts are small and scale-like. Such a branch-system is called an inflorescence. The primary function of the flower is to bear the spores. These, as in Gymno- sperms, are of two kinds, microspores or pollen-grains, borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls) and megaspores, in which the egg-cell is developed, contained in the ovule, which is borne enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll). The flower may consist only of spore-bearing leaves, as in willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually, however, other leaves are present which are only indirectly concerned with the reproductive process, acting as protective organs for the sporophylls or forming an attractive envelope. These form the perianth and are in one series, when the flower is termed monochlamydeous, or in two series (dichlamydeous). In the second case the outer series (calyx of sepals) is generally green and leaf-like, its function being to protect the rest of the flower, especially in the bud; while the inner series (corolla of petals) is generally white or brightly coloured, and more delicate in structure, its function being to attract the particular insect or bird by agency of which pollination is effected. The insect, &c., is attracted by the colour and scent of the flower, and frequently also by honey which is secreted in some part of the flower. (For further details on the form and arrangement of the flower and its parts, see FLOWER.)
Each stamen generally bears four pollen-sacs (microsporangia) which are associated to form the anther, and carried up on a stalk or filament. The development of the micro- stfmea sporangia and the contained spores (pollen-grains) aadpouea. is closely comparable with that of the microsporangia in Gymnosperms or heterosporous ferns. The pollen is set free by the opening (dehiscence) of the anther, generally by means of longitudinal slits, but sometimes by pores, as in the heath family (Ericaceae), or by valves, as in the barberry. It is then dropped or carried by some external agent, wind, water or some member of the animal kingdom, on to the receptive surface of
ANGIOSPERMS
i i
the carpel of the same or another flower. The carpel, or aggregate of carpels forming the pistil or gynaeceum, comprises an ovary containing one or more ovules and a receptive surface or stigma; the stigma is sometimes carried up on a style. The mature pollen- grain is, like other spores, a single ceil; except in the case of some submerged aquatic plants, it has a double wall, a thin delicate wall of unaltered cellulose, the endospore or inline, and a tough outer cuticularizcd exospore or extine. The cxo- spore often bears spines or warts, or is variously sculptured, and the character of the markings is often of value for the distinction of genera or higher groups. Germination of the microspore begins before it leaves the pollen-sac. In very few cases has anything representing prothallial development been observed; generally a small cell (the antheridial or generative cell) is cut off, leaving a larger tube-cell. When placed on the stigma, under favourable circumstances, the pollen-grain puts forth a pollen- tube which grows down the tissue of the style to the ovary, and makes its way along the placenta, guided by projections or hairs, to the mouth of an ovule. The nucleus of the tube-cell has meanwhile passed into the tube, as does also the generative nucleus which divides to form two male- or sperm- cells. The male-cells arc carried to their destination in the tip of the pollen-tube.
The ovary contains one or more ovules borne on a pla- centa, which is generally some part of the ovary-wall. The development of the ovule, which represents the *"•'"' macrosporangium, is very similar to the process in Gymnosperms; when mature it consists of one or two coats surrounding the central nucellus, except at the apex where an opening, the micropyle, is left. The nucellus is a cellular tissue enveloping one large cell, the embryo-sac or macrospore. The germination of the macrospore consists in the repeated division of its nucleus to form two groups of four, one group at each end of the embryo-sac. One nucleus from each group, the polar nucleus, passes to the centre of the sac, where the two fuse to form the so-called definitive nucleus. Of the three cells at the micropylar end of the sac, all naked cells (the so-called egg-apparatus), one is the egg-cell or oosphere, the other two, which may be regarded as representing abortive egg -cells (in rare cases capable of fertilization), are known as syncrgidae. The three cells at the opposite end are known as antipodal cells and become invested with a cell-wall. The gamctophyte or prothallial generation is thus extremely reduced, consisting of but little more than the male and female sexual cells — the two sperm-cells in the pollen-tube and the egg-cell (with the synergidae) in the embryo-sac. At the period of fertilization the embryo-sac lies in close proximity to the opening of the micropyle, into which the pollen- tube has penetrated, the separating cell-wall becomes absorbed, and the male or sperm-cells areejected into theembryo- sac. Guided by the syncrgidae one male-cell passes into the oosphcre with which it fuses, the two nuclei uniting, while the other fuses with the definitive nucleus, or, as it is also called, the endosperm nucleus. This remarkable double fertilization as it has been called, although only recently discovered, has been proved to take place in widely-separated families, and both in Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, and there is every probability that, perhaps with variations, it is the normal process in Angio- sperms. After impregnation the fertilized oosphere immediately surrounds itself with a cell-wall and becomes the oospore which by a process of growth forms the embryo of the new plant. The endosperm-nucleus divides rapidly to produce a cellular tissue which fills up the interior of the rapidly-growing embryo- sac, and forms a tissue, known as endosperm, in which is stored a supply of nourishment for the use later on of the embryo. It has long been known that after fertilization of the egg has taken place, the formation of endosperm begins from the endosperm nucleus, and this had come to be regarded as the recommence- ment of the development of a prothallium after a pause following the rcinvigorating union of the polar nuclei. This view is still maintained by those who differentiate two acts of fertilization within the embryo-sac, and regard that of the egg by the first
l-ertllUm- tloa.
male-cell, as the true or generative fertilisation, and that of the polar nuclei by the second male gamete as a vegetative fertiliza- tion which gives a stimulus to development in correlation with the other. If, on the other hand, the endosperm b the product of an act of fertilization as definite as that giving rite to the embryo itself, we have to recognize that twin-plants are produced within the embryo-sac — one, the embryo, which becomes the angiospermous plant, the other, the endosperm, a short-lived, undifferentiated nurse to assist in the nutrition of the former, even as the subsidiary embryos in a pluri-embryonic Gymno- spcrm may facilitate the nutrition of the dominant one. If this is so, and the endosperm like the embryo is normally the product of a sexual act, hybridization will give a hybrid endosperm as it does a hybrid embryo, and herein (it is suggested) we may have the explanation of the phenomenon of xenia observed in the mixed endosperms of hybrid races of maize and other plants, regarding which it has only been possible hitherto to assert that they were indications of the extension of the influence of the pollen beyond the egg and its product. This would not. however, explain the formation of fruits intermediate in size and colour between those of crossed parents. The signification of the coalescence of the polar nuclei is not explained by these new facts, but it is noteworthy that the second male-cell is said to unite sometimes with the apical polar nucleus, the sister of the egg, before the union of this with the basal polar one. The idea of the endosperm as a second subsidiary plant is no new one; it was suggested long ago in explanation of the coalescence of the polar nuclei, but it was then based on the assumption that these represented male and female cells, an assumption for which there was no evidence and which was inherently improbable. The proof of a coalescence of the second male nucleus with the definitive nucleus gives the conception a more stable basis. The antipodal cells aid more or less in the process of nutrition of the developing embryo, and may undergo multiplication, though they ultimately disintegrate, as do also the synergidae. As in Gymnosperms and other groups an interesting qualitative change is associated with the process of fertilization. The number of chromosomes (see PLANTS: Cytology) in the nucleus of the two spores, pollen-grain and embryo-sac, is only half the number found in an ordinary vegetative nucleus; and this reduced number persists in the cells derived from them. The full number is restored in the fusion of the male and female nuclei in the process of fertilization, and remains until the formation of the cells from which the spores are derived in the new generation.
In several natural orders and genera departures from the course of development just described have been noted. In the natural order Rosaceae, the series Querciflorae, and the very anomalous genus Casuarina and others, instead of a single macrospore a more or less extensive sporogenous tissue is formed, but only one cell proceeds to the formation of a functional female cell. In Casuarina, Juglans and the order Corylaceae, the pollen-tube does not enter by means of the micropyle, but passing down the ovary wall and through the placenta, enters at the chalazal end of the ovule. Such a method of entrance is styled chalazogamic, in contrast to the porogamic or ordinary method of approach by means of the micropyle.
The result of fertilization is the development of the ovule into the seed. By the segmentation of the fertilized egg, now invested by cell-membrane, the embryo-plant arises. A varying number of transverse segment-walls transform it into a pro-embryo — a cellular row of which the cell nearest the micropyle becomes attached to the apex of the embryo-sac, and thus fixes the position of the developing embryo, while the terminal cell is projected into its cavity. In Dicotyledons the shoot of the embryo is wholly derived from the terminal cell of the pro-embryo, from the next cell the root arises, and the remaining ones form the suspensor. In many Monocotyledons the terminal cell forms the cotyledonary portion alone of the shoot of the embryo, its axial part and the root being derived from the adjacent cell; the cotyledon is thus a terminal structure and the apex of the primary stem a lateral one — a condition in marked contrast with that of the Dicotyledons. In some Monocotyledons,
12
ANGIOSPERMS
however, the cotyledon is not really terminal. The primary root of the embryo in all Angiosperms points towards the micropyle. The developing embryo at the end of the suspensor grows out to a varying extent into the forming endosperm, from which by surface absorption it derives good material for growth; at the same time the suspensor plays a direct part as a carrier of nutrition, and may even develop, where perhaps no endosperm is formed, special absorptive " suspensor roots " which invest the developing embryo, or pass out into the body and coats of the ovule, or even into the placenta. In some cases the embryo or the embryo-sac sends out suckers into the nucellus and ovular integument. As the embryo develops it may absorb all the food material available, and store, either in its cotyledons or in its hypocotyl, what is not immediately required for growth, as reserve-food for use in germination, and by so doing it increases in size until it may fill entirely the embryo-sac; or its absorptive power at this stage may be limited to what is necessary for growth and it remains of relatively small size, occupying but a small area of the embryo-sac, which is otherwise filled with endosperm in which the reserve-food is stored. There are also intermediate states. The position of the embryo in relation to the endosperm varies, sometimes it is internal, sometimes external, but the significance of this has not yet been established.
The formation of endosperm starts, as has been stated, from the endosperm nucleus. Its segmentation always begins before that of the egg, and thus there is timely preparation for the nursing of the young embryo. If in its extension to contain the new formations within it the embryo-sac remains narrow, endo- sperm formation proceeds upon the lines of a cell-division, but in wide embryo-sacs the endosperm is first of all formed as a layer of naked cells around the wall of the sac, and only gradually acquires a pluricellular character, forming a tissue filling the sac. The function of the endosperm is primarily that of nourishing the embryo, and its basal position in the embryo-sac places it favourably for the absorption of food material entering the ovule. Its duration varies with the precocity of the embryo. It may be wholly absorbed by the progressive growth of the embryo within the embryo-sac, or it may persist as a definite and more or less conspicuous constituent of the seed. When it persists as a massive element of the seed its nutritive function is usually apparent, for there is accumulated within its cells reserve-food, and according to the dominant substance it is starchy, oily, or rich in cellulose, mucilage or proteid. In cases where the embryo has stored reserve food within itself and thus provided for self-nutrition, such endosperm as remains in the seed may take on other functions, for instance, that of water-absorption.
Some deviations from the usual course of development may be noted. Parthenogenesis, or the development of an embryo from an egg-cell without the latter having been fertilized has been de- scribed in speciesof Thalictrum, Anlennariaa.nd Alchemilla. Poly- embryony is generally associated with the development of cells other than the egg-cell. Thus in Erythrmium and Limnocharis the fertilized egg may form a mass of tissue on which several embryos are produced. Isolated cases show that any of the cells within the embryo-sac may exceptionally form an embryo, e.g. the synergidae in species of Mimosa, Iris and AUium, and in the last-mentioned the antipodal cells also. In Coelebogyne (Euphorbiaceae) and in Funkia (Liliaceae) polyembryony results from an adventitious oroduction of embryos from the cells of the nucellus around the top of the embryo-sac. In a species of AUium, embryos have been found developing in the same individual from the egg-cell, synergids, antipodal cells and cells of the nucellus. In two Malayan species of Balanophora, the embryo is developed from a cell of the endosperm, which is formed from the upper polar nucleus only, the egg apparatus becoming disorganized. The last-mentioned case has been regarded as representing an apogamous development of the sporophy te from the gametophyte comparable to the cases of apogamy described in Ferns. But the great diversity of these abnormal cases as shown in the examples cited above suggests the use of great caution in for- mulating definite morphological theories upon them.
As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within
""
the embryo-sac, its wall enlarges and commonly absorbs the substance of the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) to near its outer limit, and combines with it and the integument to form the seed-coat; or the whole nucellus and even the integument may be absorbed. In some plants the nucellus is not thus absorbed, but itself becomes a seat of de- posit of reserve-food constituting the perisperm which may coexist with endosperm, as hi the water-lily order, or may alone form a food-reserve for the embryo, as in Canna. Endospermic food- reserve has evident advantages over perispermic, and the latter is comparatively rarely found and only in non-progressive series. Seeds in which endosperm or perisperm or both exist are com- monly called albuminous or endospermic, those in which neither is found are termed exalbuminous or exendospermic. These terms, extensively used by systematists, only refer, however, to the grosser features of the seed, and indicate the more or less evident occurrence of a food-reserve; many so-called exalbuminous seeds show to microscopic examination a distinct endosperm which may have other than a nutritive function. The presence or absence of endosperm, its relative amount when present, and the position of the embryo within it, are valuable characters for the distinction of orders and groups of orders. Meanwhile the ovary wall has developed to form the fruit or pericarp, the structure of which is closely associated with the manner of distribution of the seed. Frequently the influence of fertilization is felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in the formation of the fruit, as the floral receptacle in the apple, strawberry and others. The character of the seed-coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. Their function is the twofold one of protecting the embryo and of aiding in dissemination; they may also directly promote germination. If the fruit is a dehiscent one and the seed is therefore soon exposed, the seed-coat has to provide for the protection of the embryo and may also have to secure dissemina- tion. On the other hand, indehiscent fruits discharge these functions for the embryo, and the seed-coat is only slightly developed. Dissemination is effected by the agency of water, of air, of animals — and fruits and seeds are therefore grouped in respect of this as hydrophilous, anemophilous and zooidiophilous. The needs for these are obvious — buoyancy in water and resistance to wetting for the first, some form of parachute for the second, and some attaching mechanism or attractive structure for the third. The methods hi which these are provided are of infinite variety, and any and every part of the flower and of the inflorescence may be called into requisition to supply the adaptation (see FRUIT). Special outgrowths, arils, of the seed-coat are of frequent occurrence. In the feature of fruit and seed, by which the distribution of Angio- sperms is effected, we have a distinctive character of the class. In Gy mnosperms we have seeds, and the carpels may become modified and close around these, as in Pinus, during the process of ripening to form an imitation of a box-like fruit which subsequently open- ing allows the seeds to escape; but there is never in them the closed ovary investing from the outset the ovules, and ultimately forming the ground-work of the fruit.
Their fortuitous dissemination does not always bring seeds upon a suitable nidus for germination, the primary essential of which is a sufficiency of moisture, and the duration of vitality of the embryo is a point of interest. Some y*™'"*" seeds retain vitality for a period of many years, though geed- there is no warrant for the popular notion that genuine " mummy wheat " will germinate; on the other hand some seeds lose vitality in little more than a year. Further, the older the seed the more slow as a general rule will germination be in starting, but there are notable exceptions. This pause, often of so long duration, in the growth of the embryo between the time of its perfect development within the seed and the moment of germination, is one of the remarkable and distinctive features of the life of Spermatophytes. The aim of germination is the fixing of the embryo in the soil, effected usually by means of the root, which is the first part of the embryo to appear, in preparation for the elongation of the epicotyledonary portion of the shoot, and there is infinite variety in the details of the process. In
ANGIOSPERMS
albuminous Dicotyledons the cotyledons act as the absorbents of the reserve-food of the seed and are commonly brought above ground (e^iftaJ). either withdrawn from the seed-coat or carrying it u|x>n th. m. and then they serve as the first green organs of the plant. The part of the stem below the cotyledons (hypocotyf) commonly plays the greater part in bringing this about. Ex- albuminous Dicotyledons usually store reserve-food in their cotyledons, which may in germination remain below ground (kypoteaf). In albuminous Monocotyledons the cotyledon itself, probably in consequence of its terminal position, is commonly the agent by which the embryo is thrust out of the seed, and it may function solely as a feeder, its extremity developing as a sucker through which the endosperm is absorbed, or it may become the first green organ, the terminal sucker dropping off with the seed-coat when the endosperm is exhausted. Exalbuminous Monocotyledons are either hydrophytes or strongly hydrophilous plants and have often peculiar features in germination.
Distribution by seed appears to satisfy so well the requirements of Angiosperms that distribution by vegetative buds is only an occasional process. At the same time every bud on a s000' h" the capacity to form a new plant if placed 'n suitable conditions, as the horticultural practice of propagation by cuttings shows; in nature we see plants spreading by the rooting of their shoots, and buds we know may be freely formed not only on stems but on leaves and on roots. Where detachable buds are produced, which can be transported through the air to a distance, each of them is an incipient shoot which may have a root, and there is always reserve-food stored in some part of it. In essentials such a bud resembles a seed. A relation between such vegetative distribu- tion buds and production of flower is usually marked. Where there is free formation of buds there is little flower and commonly no seed, and the converse is also the case. Viviparous plants are .in illustration of substitution of vegetative buds for flower.
The position of Angiosperms as the highest plant-group is unassailable, but of the point or points of their origin from the general stem of the plant kingdom, and of the path or paths of their evolution, we can as yet say little. y. Until well on in the Mesozoic period geological history tells us nothing about Angiosperms, and then only by their vegetative organs. We readily recognize in them now-a- days the natural classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons distinguished alike in vegetative and in reproductive construction, yet showing remarkable parallel sequences in development; and we see that the Dicotyledons are the more advanced and show the greater capacity for further progressive evolution. But there is no sound basis for the assumption that the Dicoty- ledons are derived from Monocotyledons; indeed, the palaeonto- logical evidence seems to point to the Dicotyledons being the older. This, however, does not entitle us to assume the origin of Monocotyledons from Dicotyledons, although there is mani- festly a temptation to connect helobic forms of the former with ranal ones of the latter. There is no doubt that the phylum of Angiosperms has not sprung from that of Gymnosperms.
Within each class the flower-characters as the essential feature of Angiosperms supply the clue to phytogeny, but the uncertainty regarding the construction of the primitive angiospermous flower give* a fundamental point of divergence in attempts to construct progressive sequences of the families. Simplicity of flower-structure has appeared to some to be always primitive, whilst by others it has been taken to be always derived. There is, however, abundant evidence that it may have the one or the other character in different caws. Apart from this, botanists are generally agreed that the concrescence of parts of the flower-whorls — in the gynaeceum as the seed-covering, and in the corolla as the seat of attraction, more than in the androecium and the calyx — is an indication of advance, as is also the concrescence that gives the condition of epigyny. Dorsiventrality is also clearly derived from radial construction, and anatropy of the ovule has followed atropy. We should expect the albuminous state of the seed to be an antecedent one to the ex- albuminous condition, and the recent discoveries in fertilization tend to confirm this view. Amongst Dicotyledons the gamopetalous forms are admitted to be the highest development and a dominant one of our epoch. Advance has been along two lines, markedly in relation to insect-pollination, one of which has culminated in the
hypogynou* epipetatous bkarprilate forms with doniveatral often Urge iind loowly arranged flowers Mich u occur la
which the Compo*itM represent the most elaborate type. In the polypetalou* form* progression from hypogyny to epigyny i* gener- ally recognized, and where dorsiventrality with insect-pollination ha* been established, a dominant group ha* beta developed a* in the Lcguminosae. The starting-point of the das*, however, and the position within it of apetalous families with frequently unisexual flower*, have provoked much discussion. In Monocotyledon* a similar advance from hypogyny to epigyny i* observed, and from the dorsiventral to the radial type of flower. In this connexion it » noteworthy that so many of the higher form* are adapted a* bulbous geophytes, or as aerophyte* to special xerophilou* condition*. The Gram meat offer a prominent example of a dominant lelf-pollinated or wind-pollinated family, and this may find explanation in a multiplicity of factors.
Though Dot known for hi* artificial (or sexual) system, Linnaeus was impressed with the importance of elaborating a natural system of arrangement in which plants should be arranged according to their true affinities. In his Philosophia Bolanua (1751) Linnaeus grouped the genera then known into sixty-seven orders (fragmenlo). all except five of which are Angiosperms. He gave name* to these but did not characterize them or attempt to arrange them in larger groups. Some represent natural group* and had in several TTT« been already recognized by Ray and others, but the majority are. in the light of modern knowledge, very mixed. Well-defined poly- petalous and gamopetalous genera sometimes occur in the same order, and even Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons are >-l«— H together where they have some striking physiological character in common. Work on the line* suggested by the Linnaean fragments was continued in France by Bernard de Jussieu and his nephew, Antoine Laurent, and the arrangement suggested by the latter in bis Genera Ptanlarum secundum Ordinei NaturaUs duposita (1789) is the first which can claim to be a natural system. The order* are carefully characterized, and thoae of Angiosperms are grouped in fourteen classes under the two main divisions Monocotyledons and Dicoty- ledons. The former comprise three classes, which are distinguished by the relative position of the stamens and ovary; the eleven classes of the latter are based on the same set of character* and fall into the larger subdivisions Apetalae, Monopetalae and Polypetalae, characterized respectively by absence, union or freedom of the petals, and a subdivision, Dictinei Irrtfulares, a very unnatural group, including one class only. A. P. de Candolle introduced several improvements into the system. In his arrangement the last sub- division disappears, and the Dicotyledons fall into two group*, a larger containing those in which both calyx and corolla are present in the flower, and a smaller, Monochlamydeae, representing the Apetalae and Diflines Irregulares of Jussieu. The dirhlamydeous group is subdivided into three, Thalamiflorae, C'alyciflorae and Corolliflorae, depending on the position and union of the petals. This, which we may distinguish as the French system, finds its most perfect expression in the classic Genera Plantarum (1862-1883) at Bentham and Hooker, a work containing a description, based on careful examination of specimens, of all known genera of flowering plants. The subdivision is as follows: — Dicotyledons.
I Thalamiflorae.
Polypetalae 1 Disciflorae. ICalyciflorae. [Inferae.
Gamopetalae -j Heteromerae. [ Bicarpellatae.
Monochlamydeae in eight series.
Monocotyledons in seven series.
Of the Polypetalae, series i, Thalamiflorae, i* characterised by hypogynous petals and stamens, and contains 34 orders distributed in 6 larger groups or cohorts. Series 3, Disciflorae. take* it» name from a development of the floral axis which form* a ring or cushion at the base of the ovary or is broken up into glands; the ovary i* superior. It contains 23 orders in 4 cohorts. Series 3, C'alyciflorae. has petals and stamens perigynous, or sometime* superior. It contains 27 orders in 5 cohorts.
Of the Gamopetalae, series i, Inferae, has an inferior ovary and stamens usually as many as the corolla-lobes. It contains 9 orders in 3 cohorts. Series 2, Heteromerae, has generally a superior ovary, stamens as many as the corolla-lobe* or more, and more than two carpels. It contains 12 orders in 3 cohorts. Series 3, Bicarpellatae. has generally a superior ovary and usually two carpels. It contains 24 orders in 4 cohorts.
The eight series of Monochlamydeae, containing 36 orders, form groups characterized mainly by differences in the ovary and ovule*. and are now recognized a* of uneaual value.
The seven series of Monocotyledons represent a sequence beginning with the most complicated epigynous orders, such as Orchideae and Scitamineae, and passing through the pctaloid hypogynous orders (series Coronarieae) of which Liliaceae is the representative to juncaceae and the palms (series Calycinae) where the perianth loses its petaloid character and thence to the Aroids, •crew-pine* and
ANGKOR— ANGLE
others where it is more or less aborted (series Nudiflorae). Series 6, Apocarpeae, is characterized by 5 carpels, and in the last series Glumaceae, great simplification in the flower is associated with a grass-like habit.
The sequence of orders in the polypetalous subdivision of Dicoty- ledons undoubtedly represents a progression from simpler to more elaborate forms, but a great drawback to the value of the system is the inclusion among the Monochlamydeae of a number of orders which are closely allied with orders of Polypetalae though differing in absence of a corolla. The German systematist, A. W. Eichler, attempted to remove this disadvantage which since the time of Jussieu had characterized the French system, and in 1883 grouped the Dicotyledons in two subclasses. The earlier Chonpetalae embraces the Polypetalae and Mpnochlamydae of the French systems. It includes 21 series, and is an attempt to arrange as far as possible in a linear series those orders which are characterized by absence or freedom of petals. The second subclass, Gamopetalae, includes 9 series and culminates in those which show the most elaborate type of flower, the series Aggregatae, the chief representa- tive of which is the great and wide-spread order Compositae. A modification of Eichler's system, embracing the most recent views of the affinities of the orders of Angiosperms, has been put forward by Dr Adolf Engler of Berlin, who adopts the suggestive names Archichlamydeae and Metachlamydeae for the two subdivisions of Dicotyledons. Dr Engler is the principal editor of a large series of volumes which, under the title Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien, is a systematic account of all the known genera of plants and represents the work of many botanists. More recently in Das Pflanzenreich the same author organized a series of complete monographs of the families of seed-plants.
As an attempt at a phylogenetic arrangement, Engler's system is now preferred by many botanists. More recently a startling novelty in the way of system has been produced by van Tieghem, as follows : Monocotyledons. Liorhizal Dicotyledons. Dicotyledons.
INSEMINEAE. SEMINEAE.
Unitegmineae. Bitegmineae.
The most remarkable feature here is the class of Liorhizal Dicoty- ledons, which includes only the families of Nymphaeaceae and Gramineae. It is based upon the fact that the histological differentia- tion of the epidermis of their root is that generally characteristic of Monocotyledons, whilst they have two cotyledons — the old view of the epiblast as a second cotyledon in Gramineae being adopted. But the presence of a second cotyledon in grasses is extremely doubtful, and though there may be ground for reconsidering the position of Nymphaeaceae, their association with the grasses as a distinct class is not warranted by a comparative examination of the members of the two orders. Oyular characters determine the group- ing in the Dicotyledons, van Tieghem supporting the view that the integument, the outer if there be two, is the lamina of a leaf of which the funiclc is the petiole, whilst the nucellus is an outgrowth of this leaf, and the inner integument, if present, an indusium. The Insemineae include forms in which the nucellus is not developed, and therefore there can be no seed. The plants included are, however, mainly well-established parasites, and the absence of nucellus is only one of those characters of reduction to which parasites are liable. Even if we admit van Tieghem's interpretation of the integuments to be correct, the diagnostic mark of his unitegminous and biteg- minous groups is simply that of the absence or presence of an in- dusium, not a character of great value elsewhere, and, as we know, the number of the ovular coats is inconstant within the same family. At the same time the groups based upon the integuments are of much the same extent as the Polypetalae and Gamopetalae of other systems. We do not yet know the significance of this correla- tion, which, however, is not an invariable one, between number of integuments and union of petals.
Within the last few years Prof. John Coulter and Dr C. J. Chamberlain of Chicago University have given a valuable general account of the morphology of Angiosperms as far as concerns the flower, and the series of events which ends in the formation of the seed (Morphology of Angiosperms, Chicago, 1903).
AUTHORITIES. — The reader will find in the following works details of the subject and references to the literature: Bentham and Hooker, Genera Plantarum (London, 1862-1883); Eichler, Bluthen- diagramme (Leipzig, 1875-1878) ; Engler and Prantl, Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1887-1899); Engler, Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien, 3rd ed. (Berlin, 1903); Knuth, Handbuch der B/utenbiologie (Leipzig, 1898, 1899); Sachs, History of Botany, English ed. (Oxford, 1890); Solereder, Systematische Anatomic der Dicotyledonen (Stuttgart, 1899) ; van Tieghem, Elements de botan- ique; Coulter and Chamberlain, Morphology of Angiosperms (New York, 1903). (I. B. B.; A. B. R.)
ANGKOR, an assemblage of ruins in Cambodia, the relic of the ancient Khmer civilization. They are situated in forests to the north of the Great Lake (Tonle-Sap), the most conspicuous
of the remains being the town of Angkor-Thorn and the temple of Angkor-Vat, both of which lie on the right bank of the river Siem-Reap, a tributary of Tonle-Sap. Other remains of the same form and character lie scattered about the vicinity on both banks of the river, which is crossed by an ancient stone bridge.
Angkor-Thorn lies about a quarter of a mile from the river. According to Aymonier it was begun about A. D. 860, in the reign of the Khmer sovereign Jayavarman III., and finished towards A.D. 900. It consists of a rectangular enclosure, nearly 2 m. in each direction, surrounded by a wall from 20 to 30 ft. in height. Within the enclosure, which is entered by five monu- mental gates, are the remains of palaces and temples, overgrown by the forest. The chief of these are: —
(1) The vestiges of the royal palace, which stood within an enclosure containing also the pyramidal religious structure known as the Phimeanakas. To the east of this enclosure there extends a terrace decorated with magnificent reliefs.
(2) The temple of Bayon, a square enclosure formed by galleries with colonnades, within which is another and more elaborate system of galleries, rectangular in arrangement and enclosing a cruciform structure, at the centre of which rises a huge tower with a circular base. Fifty towers, decorated with quadruple faces of Brahma, are built at intervals upon the galleries, the whole temple ranking as perhaps the most remarkable of the Khmer remains.
Angkor-Vat, the best preserved example of Khmer architec- ture, lies less than a mile to the south of the royal city, within a rectangular park surrounded by a moat, the outer perimeter of which measures 6060 yds. On the west side of the park a paved causeway, leading over the moat and under a magnificent portico, extends for a distance of a quarter of a mile to the chief entrance of the main building. The temple was originally devoted to the worship of Brahma, but afterwards to that of Buddha; its construction is assigned by Aymonier to the first half of the 1 2th century A.D. It consists of three stages, connected by numerous exterior staircases and decreasing in dimensions as they rise, culminating in the sanctuary, a great central tower pyramidal in form. Towers also surmount the angles of the terraces of the two upper stages. Three galleries with vault- ing supported on columns lead from the three western portals to the second stage. They are connected by a transverse gallery, thus forming four square basins. Khmer decoration, profuse but harmonious, consists chiefly in the representa- tion of gods, men and animals, which are displayed on every flat surface. Combats and legendary episodes are often depicted; floral decoration is reserved chiefly for borders, mouldings and capitals. Sandstone of various colours was the chief material employed by the Khmers; limonite was also used. The stone was cut into huge blocks which are fitted together with great accuracy without the use of cement.
See E. Aymonier, Le Cambodge (3 vols., 1900-1904); Doudart de Lagree, Voyage d' exploration en Indo-Chine (1872-1873); A. H. Mouhot, Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia and Laos (2 vols., 1864); Fournereau and Porcher, Les Ruines d' Angkor (1890) ; L. Delaporte, Voyage au Cambodge: I' architecture Khmer (1880) ; J. Moura, Le Royaume de Cambodge (2 vols., 18*83).
ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. 07x0$, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to bend: see ANGLING), in geometry, the inclination of one line or plane to another. Euclid (Elements, book i) defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other (see GEOMETRY, EUCLIDEAN). According to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was utilized by Eudemus, who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight line; the second by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the third concept, although his definitions of right, acute, and obtuse angles are certainly quantitative. A discussion of
ANGLER— ANGLESEY
these concept* and the various definition* of angles in Euclidean geometry is to be found in \V. B. Frankland, The Pint Book of Euclid's Elements (1905). Following Euclid, a right angle is formed by a straight line standing upon another straight line so as to make the adjacent angles equal; any angle less than a right angle is termed an acute angle, and any angle greater than a right angle an obtuse angle. The difference between an acute angle and a right angle is termed the complement of the angle, and between an angle and two right angles the supplement of the angle. The generalized view of angles and their measurement is treated in the article TRIGONOMETRY. A solid angle is definable as the space contained by three or more planes intersecting in a common point; it is familiarly represented by a corner. The angle between two planes is termed dihedral, between three trihedral, between any number more than three polyhedral. A spherical angle is a particular dihedral angle; it is the angle between two intersecting arcs on a sphere, and is measured by the angle between the planes containing the arcs and the centre of the sphere.
The angle between a line and a curve ( mixed angle) or between two curves (curvilinear angle) is measured by the angle between the line and the tangent at the point of intersection, or between the tangents to both curves at their common point. Various names (now rarely, if ever, used) have been given to particular cases: — amphicyrtic (Gr. A/i^i, on both sides, Kvpria, convex) or cissoidal (Gr. nioobs, ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal (Gr. (wrrpts, a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic (Gr. Koi\7j, a hollow) or angulus lunularis, biconcave.
ANGLER, also sometimes called fishing-frog, frog-fish, sea- devil (Lophius piscatorius), a fish well known off the coasts of Great Britain and Europe generally, the grotesque shape of its body and its singular habits having attracted the attention of naturalists of all ages. To the North Sea fishermen this fish is known as the " monk," a name which more properly belongs to Khina squat ina, a fish allied to the skates. Its head is of enormous size, broad, flat and depressed, the remainder of the body appearing merely like an appendage. The wide mouth extends
The Angler (Lophius piscatorius).
all round the anterior circumference of the head; and both jaws are armed with bands of long pointed teeth, which are inclined inwards, and can be depressed so as to offer no impedi- ment to an object gliding towards the stomach, but to prevent its escape from the mouth. The pectoral and ventral fins are so articulated as to perform the functions of feet, the fish being enabled to move, or rather to walk, on the bottom of the sea, where it generally hides itself in the sand or amongst sea-weed. All round its head and also along the body the skin bears fringed appendages resembling short fronds of sea-weed, a structure which, combined with the extraordinary faculty of assimilating the colour of the body to its surroundings, assists this fish greatly in concealing itself in places which it selects on account of the abundance of prey. To render the organization of this creature perfect in relation to its wants, it is provided with three long filaments inserted along the middle of the head, which are, in fact, the detached and modified three first spines of the anterior dorsal fin. The filament most important in the economy of the angler is the first, which is the longest, terminates in a lappet, and is movable in every direction. The angler is
believed to attract other fishes by means of its lure, and then to seize them with its enormous jaws. It is probable enough that smaller fishes are attracted in this way, but experiments have shown that the action of the jaws is automatic and depend* on contact of the prey with the tentacle. Its stomach is disten- sible in an extraordinary degree, and not rarely fishes have been taken out quite as large and heavy as their destroyer. It grows to a length of more than 5 ft.; specimens of 3 ft. are common. The spawn of the angler is very remarkable. It consists of a thin sheet of transparent gelatinous material i or 3 ft. broad and 25 to 30 ft. in length. The eggs in this sheet are in a single layer, each in its own little cavity. The spawn is free in the sea. The larvae are free-swimming and have the pelvic fins elongated into filaments. The British species is found all round the coasts of Europe and western North America, but becomes scarce beyond 60° N. lat.; it occurs also on the coasts of the Cape of Good Hope. A second species (Lophius budtga.ua) inhabits the Mediterranean, and a third (L. setigerus) the coasts of China and Japan.
ANGLESEY. ARTHUR ANNESLEY. ist EARL or (1614-1686), British statesman, son of the ist Viscount Valentia (ex. 1621) and Baron Mountnorris (cr. 1628), and of Dorothy, daughter of Sir John Philipps of Picton Castle, Pembrokeshire, was born at Dublin on the loth of July 1614, was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, and was admitted to Lincoln's Inn in 1634. Having made the grand tour he returned to Ireland; and being employed by the parliament in a mission to the duke of Ormonde, now reduced to the last extremities, he succeeded in conclud- ing a treaty with him on the igth of June 1647, thus securing the country from complete subjection to the rebels. In April 1647 he was returned for Radnorshire to the House of Commons. He supported the parliamentary as against the republican or army party, and appears to have been one of the members excluded in 1648. He sat in Richard Cromwell's parliament for Dublin city, and endeavoured to take his seat in the restored Rump Parliament of 1659. He was made president of the council in February 1660, and in the Convention Parliament sat for Carmarthen borough. The anarchy of the last months of the commonwealth converted him to royalism, and he showed great activity in bringing about the Restoration. He used his influence in moderating measures of revenge and violence, and while sitting in judgment on the regicides was ou the side of leniency. In November 1660 by his father's death he had become Viscount Valentia and Baron Mountnorris in the Irish peerage, and on the zoth April 1661 he was created Baron Annesley of Newport Pagnell in Buckinghamshire and earl of Anglesey in the peerage of Great Britain. He supported the king's administration in parliament, but opposed strongly the unjust measure which, on the abolition of the court of wards, placed the extra burden of taxation thus rendered necessary on the excise. His services in the administration of Ireland were especially valuable. He filled the office of vice-treasurer from 1660 till 1667, served on the committee for carrying out the declaration for the settlement of Ireland and on the committee for Irish affairs, while later, in 1671 and 1672, he was a leading member of various commissions appointed to investigate the working of the Acts of Settlement. In February 1661 he had obtained a captaincy of horse, and in 1667 he exchanged his vice-treasuryship of Ireland for the treasuryship of the navy. His public career was marked by great independence and fidelity to principle. On the 24th of July 1663 he alone signed a protest against the bill " for the encourage- ment of trade," on the plea that owing to the free export of coin and bullion allowed by the act, and to the importation of foreign commodities being greater than the export of home goods, " it must necessarily follow . . . that our silver will also be carried away into foreign parts and all trade fail for want of money."1 He especially disapproved of another clause in the same bill forbidding the importation of Irish cattle into England, a mischievous measure promoted by the duke of Buckingham, and he opposed again the bill brought in with that object in January
1 Protests of the Lords, by J. E. Thorold Rogers (1875), L 27: Carti's Life of Ormonde (1851), iv. 234; Part. Hist. iv. 384.
i6
ANGLESEY
1667. This same year his naval accounts were subjected to an examination in consequence of his indignant refusal to take part in the attack upon Ormonde;1 and he was suspended from his office in 1668, no charge,however, against him being substantiated. He took a prominent part in the dispute in 1671 between the two Houses concerning the right of the Lords to amend money bills, and wrote a learned pamphlet on the question entitled The Privileges of the House of Lords and Commons (1702), in which the right of the Lords was asserted. In April 1673 he was appointed lord privy seal, and was disappointed at not obtaining the great seal the same year on the removal of Shaftesbury. In 1679 he was included in Sir W. Temple's new-modelled council.
In the bitter religious controversies of the time Anglesey showed great moderation and toleration. In 1674 he is men- tioned as endeavouring to prevent the justices putting into force the laws against the Roman Catholics and Nonconformists.1 In the panic of the " Popish Plot " in 1678 he exhibited a saner judgment than most of his contemporaries and a conspicuous courage. On the 6th of December he protested with three other peers against the measure sent up from the Commons enforcing the disarming of all convicted recusants and taking bail from them to keep the peace; he was the only peer to dissent from the motion declaring the existence of an Irish plot; and though believing in the guilt and voting for the death of Lord Stafford, he interceded, according to his own account,3 with the king for him as well as for Langhorne and Plunket. His independent attitude drew upon him an attack by Dangerfield, and in the Commons by the attorney-general, Sir W. Jones, who accused him of endeavouring to stifle the evidence against the Romanists. In March 1679 he protested against the second reading of the bill for disabling Danby. In 1681 Anglesey wrote A Letter from a Person of Honour in the Country, as a rejoinder to the earl of Castlehaven, who had published memoirs on the Irish rebellion defending the action of the Irish and the Roman Catholics. In so doing Anglesey was held by Ormonde to have censured his conduct and that of Charles I. in concluding the " Cessation," and the duke brought the matter before the council. In 1682 he wrote The Account of Arthur, Earl cj Anglesey . . . of the true state of Your Majesty's Government and Kingdom, which was addressed to the king in a tone of censure and remonstrance, but appears not to have been printed till 1694.* In consequence he was dismissed on the 9th of August 1682 from the office of lord privy seal. In 1683 he appeared at the Old Bailey as a witness in defence of Lord Russell, and in June 1685 he protested alone against the revision of Stafford's attainder. He died at his home at Blechingdon in Oxfordshire on the 26th of April 1686, closing a career marked by great ability, statesmanship and business capacity, and by con- spicuous courage and independence of judgment. He amassed a large fortune in Ireland, in which country he had been allotted lands by Cromwell.
The unfavourable character drawn of him by Burnet is certainly unjust and not supported by any evidence. Pepys, a far more trustworthy judge, speaks of him invariably in terms of respect and approval as a " grave, serious man," and com- mends his appointment as treasurer of the navy as that of "a very notable man and understanding and will do things regular and understand them himself."5 He was a learned and cultivated man and collected a celebrated library, which was dispersed at his death. Besides the pamphlets already mentioned, he wrote: — A True Account of the Whole Proceedings betwixt . . .the Duke of Ormond and . . . the Earl of Anglesey (1682); A Letter of Remarks upon Jovian (1683); other works ascribed to him being The King's Right of Indulgence in Matters Spiritual . . .asserted (1688); Truth Unveiled, to which is added a short Treatise on . . . Transubstantiation (1676); The Obligation resulting from the Oath of Supremacy (1688); and
1 Card's Ormonde, iv. 330, 340.
* Col. of State Pap. Dom. (1673-1675), p. 152. ' Memoirs^S.y.
4 By Sir J. Thompson, his son-m-law. Reprin1
printed in Somers Tracts r. ap ' Diary (ed. Wheatfey, 1904), iv. 298, vii. 14.
(Scott, 1812), yiii. 344, and in Parl. Hist. iv". app. xvi. leatley,
England's Confusion (1659). Memoirs of Lord Anglesey were published by Sir P. Pett in 1693, but contain little biographical information and were repudiated as a mere imposture by Sir John Thompson (Lord Haversham), his son-in-law, in his preface to Lord Anglesey's State of the Government in 1694. The author however of the preface to The Rights of the Lords asserted (1702), while blaming their publication as "scattered and unfinished papers," admits their genuineness.
Lord Anglesey married Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress of Sir James Altham of Oxey, Hertfordshire, by whom, besides other children, he had James, who succeeded him, Altham, created Baron Altham, and Richard, afterwards 3rd Baron Altham. His descendant Richard, the 6th earl (d. 1761), left a son Arthur, whose legitimacy was doubted, and the peerage became extinct. He was summoned to the Irish House of Peers as Viscount Valentia, but was denied his writ to the parliament of Great Britain by a majority of one vote. He was created in 1793 earl of Mountnorris in the peerage of Ireland. All the male descendants of the ist earl of Anglesey became extinct in the person of George, 2nd earl of Mountnorris, in 1844, when the titles of Viscount Valentia and Baron Mountnorris passed to his cousin Arthur Annesley (1785-1863), who thus became loth Viscount Valentia, being descended from the ist Viscount Valentia. the father of the ist earl of Anglesey in the Annesley family. The ist viscount was also the ancestor of the Earls Annesley in the Irish peerage.
AUTHORITIES. — Diet, of Nat. Biography, with authorities there collected; lives in Wood's Athenae Oxonienses (Bliss), iv. 181, Biographia Brilannica, and H. Walpole's Royal and Noble Authors (1806), iii. 288 (the latter a very inadequate review of Anglesey's character and career); also Bibliotheca Anglesiana . . . perThomam Philippum (1686) ; The Happy Future State of England, by Sir Peter Pett (1688); Great News from Poland (1683), where his religious tolerance is ridiculed; Somers Tracts (Scott, 1812), viii. 344; Notes of the Privy Council (Roxburghe Club, 1896); Col. of State Papers, Dom.;State Trials, viii. and ix. 619. (P. C. Y.)
ANGLESEY, HENRY WILLIAM PAGET, ist MARQUESS or (1768-1854), British field-marshal, was born on the I7th of May 1 768. He was the eldest son of Henry Paget, ist earl of Uxbridge (d. 1812), and was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, afterwards entering parliament in 1790 as member for Carnarvon, for which he sat for six years. At the outbreak of the French Revolutionary wars Lord Paget (as he was then styled), who had already served in the militia, raised on his father's estate the regiment of Staffordshire volunteers, in which he was given the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel (1793). The corps soon became part of the regular army as the 8oth Foot, and it took part, under Lord Paget 's command, in the Flanders campaign of 1794. In spite of his youth beheld a brigade command fora time, and gained also, during the campaign, his first experience of the cavalry arm, with which he was thence- forward associated. His substantive commission as lieutenant- colonel of the 1 6th Light Dragoons bore the date of the iSth of June 1795, and in 1796 he was made a colonel in the army. In 1795 he married Lady Caroline Elizabeth Villiers, daughter of the earl of Jersey. In April 1797 Lord Paget was transferred to a lieut.-colonelcy in the 7th Light Dragoons, of which regiment he became colonel in 1801. From the first he applied himself strenously to the improvement of discipline, and to the perfection of a new system of cavalry evolutions. In the short campaign of 1799 in Holland, Paget commanded the cavalry brigade, and in spite of the unsuitable character of the ground, he made, on several occasions, brilliant and successful charges. After the return of the expedition, he devoted himself zealously to his regiment, which under his command became one of the best corps in the service. In 1802 he was promoted major-general, and six years later lieutenant- general. In command of the cavalry of Sir John Moore's army during the Corunna campaign, Lord Paget won the greatest distinction. At Sahagun, Mayorga and Benavente, the British cavalry behaved so well under his leadership that Moore wrote: — " It is impossible for me to say too much in its praise. . . . Our cavalry is very superior in quality to any the French have, and
ANGLESEY
«7
thr right spirit has been infused into them by the example and instruction of their . . . leaders . . . ." At Benavente one of Napoleon's best cavalry leaden. General Lefebvrc Desnoettes, was taken prisoner. Corunna was Paget's last service in the Peninsula. His liaison with the wife of Henry Wellesley. after- wards Lord Cowley. made it impossible at that time for him to serve with Wellington, whose cavalry, on many occasions during the succeeding campaigns, felt the want of the true cavalry leader to direct them. His only war service from 1809 to 1815 was in the disastrous Walchercn expedition (i8og) in which he commanded a division. During these years he occupied himself with his parliamentary duties as member for Milborne Port, which he represented almost continuously up to his father's death in 1811, when he took his seat in the House of Lords as earl of Uxbridge. In 1810 he was divorced and married Mrs Wellesley, who had about the same time been divorced from her husband. Lady Paget was soon afterwards married to the duke of Argyll. In 1815 Lord Uxbridge received command of the British cavalry in Flanders. At a moment of danger such as that of Napoleon's return from Elba, the services of the best cavalry general in the British army could not be neglected. Wellington placed the greatest confidence in him, and on the eve of Waterloo extended his command so as to include the whole of the allied cavalry and horse artillery. He covered the retirement of the allies from Qua t re Bras to Waterloo on the iyth of June, and on the iSth gained the crowning distinction of his military career in leading the great cavalry charge of the British centre, which checked and in part routed D'Erlon's corps d'armte (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). Freely exposing his own life throughout, the earl received, by one of the last cannon shots fired, a severe wound in the leg, necessitating amputation. Five days later the prince regent created him marquess of Anglesey in recognition of his brilliant services, which were regarded universally as second only to those of the duke himself. He was made a G.C.B. and he was also decorated by many of the allied sovereigns.
In 1818 the marquess was made a knight of the Garter, in 1819 he became full general, and at the coronation of George IV. he acted as lord high steward of England. His support of the proceedings against Queen Caroline made him for a time un- popular, and when he was on one occasion beset by a crowd, who compelled him to shout " The Queen," he added the wish, " May all your wives be like her." At the close of April 1827 he became a member of the Canning administration, taking the post of master-general of the ordnance, previously held by Wellington. He was at the same time sworn a member of the privy council. Under the Wellington administration he accepted the appoint- ment of lord-lieutenant of Ireland (March 1828), and in the discharge of his important duties he greatly endeared himself to the Irish people. The spirit in which he acted and the aims which he steadily set before himself contributed to the allaying of party animosities, to the promotion of a willing submission to the laws, to the prosperity of trade and to the extension and improvement of education. On the great question of the time his views were opposed to those of the government. He saw dearly that the time was come when the relief of the Catholics from the penal legislation of the past was an indispensable measure, and in December 1828 he addressed a letter to the Roman Catholic primate of Ireland distinctly announcing his view. This led to his recall by the government, a step sincerely lamented by the Irish. He pleaded for Catholic emancipation in parliament, and on the formation of Earl Grey's administration in November 1830, he again became lord-lieutenant of Ireland. The times were changed; the act of emancipation had been passed, and the task of viceroy in his second tenure of office was to resist the agitation for repeal of the union carried on by O'Connell. He felt it his duty now to demand Coercion Acts for the security of the public peace; his popularity was diminished, differences appeared in the cabinet on the difficult subject, and in July 1 833 the ministry resigned. To the marquess of Anglesey Ireland is indebted for the board of education, the origination of which may perhaps be reckoned as the most memorable act of his viceroyalty. For thirteen years after his retirement he
remained out of office, and took little part in the affain of govern- ment He joined the Russell administration in July 1846 a» muter-general of the ordnance, finally retiring with Us chi March 1852. His promotion in the army wa» completed by hi» advancement to the rank of field-marshal in 1846. Four yean before, he exchanged his colonelcy of the ;th Light Dragoon* which he had held over forty yean, for that of the Royal Honr Guards. He died on the 2gth of April 1854.
The marquess had a large family by each of his two wives, two ions and six daughten by the first and six tons and four daughter* by the second. His eldest son, Henry, succeeded him in the marquessate; but the title passed rapidly in succession to the 3rd. 4th and 5th marquesses. The latter, whose extravagances were notorious, died in 1005, when the title passed to his cousin.
Other members of the Paget family distinguished themselves in the army and the navy. Of the first marquess's brothers one. SIR CHARLES PAGET (1778-1830), rose to the rank of vice-admiral in the Royal Navy; another, General SIR EDWARD FACET (1775-1840), won great distinction by his skilful and resolute handling of a division at Corunna, and from 1822 to 1825 was commander-in-chief in India. One of the marquess's sons by his second marriage, LORD CLARENCE EDWARD PAGET (1811-1895), became an admiral; another, LORD GEORGE AUGUSTUS FREDERICK PAGET (1818-1880), led the 4th Light Dragoons in the charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava, and subsequently commanded the brigade, and, for a short time, the cavalry division in the Crimea. In 1865 he was made inspector-general of cavalry, in 1871 lieutenant-general and K.C.B., and in 1877 full general. His Crimean journals were published in 1881.
ANGLESEY, or ANGLESKA, an insular northern county of Wales. Its area is 176,630 acres or about 276 sq. m. Anglesey, in the see of Bangor, is separated from the mainland by the Mcnai Straits (Afon Menai), over which were thrown Telford's suspension bridge, in 1826, and the Stephenson tubular railway bridge in 1850. The county is flat, with slight risings such as Parys, Cadaii Mynachdy (or Monachdy, i.e. "chair of the monastery"; there is a Nanner, " convent," not far away) and Holyhead Mountain. There are a few lakes, such as Cors cerrig y daran, but rising water is generally scarce. The climate is humid, the land poor for the most part compared with its old state of fertility, and there are few industries.
As regards geology, the younger strata in Anglesey rest upon a foundation of very old pre-Cambrian rocks which appear at the surface in three areas :— (i) a western region including Holyhead and Llanfaethlu, (2) a central area about Aberffraw and Tref- draeth, and (3) an eastern region which includes Newborough. Caerwen and Pentraeth. These pre-Cambrian rocks are schists and slates, often much contorted and disturbed. The general line of strike of the formations in the island is from N.E. toS.W. A belt of granitic rocks lies immediately north-west of the central pre-Cambrian mass, reaching from Llanfaelog near the coast to the vicinity of Llanerchymedd. Between this granite and the pre-Cambrian of Holyhead is a narrow tract of Ordovician slates and grits with Llandovery beds in places; this tract spreads out in the N. of the island between Dulas Bay and Carmel Point. A small patch of Ordovician strata lies on the northern side of Beaumaris. In parts, these Ordovician rocks are much folded, crushed and metamorphosed, and they are associated with schists and altered volcanic rocks which are probably pre-Cambrian. Between the eastern and central pre-Cambrian masses carboni- ferous rocks are found. The carboniferous limestone occupies a broad area S. of Ligwy Bay and Pentraeth, and sends a narrow spur in a south-westerly direction by Llangcfni to Malldraeth sands. The limestone is underlain on the N.W. by a red basement conglomerate and yellow sandstone (sometimes considered to be of Old Red Sandstone age). Limestone occurs again on the N. coast about Llanfihangel and Llangoed; and in the S.W. round Llanidan on the border of the Menai Strait. Puffin Island is made of carboniferous limestone. Malldraeth Marsh is occupied by coal measures, and a small patch of the same formation appears near Tall-y-foel Ferry on the Menai Straits. A patch of granitic and felsitic rocks form Parys Mountain, where copper and iron
i8
ANGLESITE— ANGLI
ochre have been worked. Serpentine (Mona Marble) is found near Llanfaerynneubwll and upon the opposite shore in Holyhead. There are abundant evidences of glaciation, and much boulder clay and drift sand covers the older rocks. Patches of blown sand occur on the S.W. coast.
The London & North-Western railway (Chester and Holy- head branch) crosses Anglesey from Llanfairpwllgwyngyll to Gaerwen and Holyhead (Caer Gybi), also from Gaerwen to Amlwch. The staple of the island is farming, the chief crops being turnips, oats, potatoes, with flax in the centre. Copper (near Amlwch), lead, silver, marble, asbestos, lime and sandstone, marl, zinc and coal have all been worked in Anglesey, coal especially at Malldraeth and Trefdraeth. The population of the county in 1901 was 50,606. There is no parliamentary borough, but one member is returned for the county. It is in the north- western circuit, and assizes are held at Beaumaris, the only municipal borough (pop. 2326). Amlwch (2994), Holyhead (10,079), Llangefni (1751) and Menai Bridge (Pont y Borth, 1700) are urban districts. There are six hundreds and seventy- eight parishes.
M6n (a cow) is the Welsh name of Anglesey, itself a corrupted form of O.E., meaning the Isle of the Angles. Old Welsh names are Ynys Dywyll (" Dark Isle ") and Ynys y cedairn (cedyrn or kedyrn; " Isle of brave folk "). It is the Mona of Tacitus (Ann. riv. 29, Agr. xiv. 18), Pliny the Elder (iv. 16) and Dio Cassius (62). It is called Mam Cymru by Giraldus Cambrensis. Clas Merddin, Y vel Ynys (honey isle), Ynys Prydein, Ynys Brut are other names. According to the Triads (67), Anglesey was once part of the mainland, as geology proves. The island was the seat of the Druids, of whom 28 cromlechs remain, on uplands over- looking the sea, e.g. at Plas Newydd. The Druids were attacked in A.D. 6 1 by Suetonius Paulinus, and by Agricola in A.D. 78. In the sth century Caswallon lived here, and here, at Aberffraw, the princesof Gwynedd lived till 1277. Thepresentroadfrom Holyhead to Llanfairpwllgwyngyll is originally Roman. British and Roman camps, coins and ornaments have been dug up and discussed, especially by the Hon. Mr Stanley of Penrhos. Pen Caer Gybi is Roman. The island was devastated by the Danes (Dub Gint or black nations, genies), especially in A.D. 853.
See Edw. Breese, Kalendar of Gwynedd (Venedocia), on Anglesey, Carnarvon and Merioneth (London, 1873); and The History of Powys Fadog.
ANGLESITE, a mineral consisting of lead sulphate, PbSO4, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, and isomorphous with barytes and celestite. It was first recognized as a mineral species by Dr Withering in 1783, who discovered it in the Parys copper- mine in Anglesey; the name anglesite, from this locality, was given by F. S. Beudant in 1832. The crystals from Anglesey, which were formerly found abundantly on a matrix of dull limonite, are small in size and simple in form, being usually bounded by four faces of a prism and four faces of a dome; they are brownish-yellow in colour owing to a stain of limonite. Crystals from some other localities, notably from Monteponi in Sardinia, are transparent and colourless, possessed of a brilliant adamantine lustre, and usually modified by numerous bright faces. The variety of combinations and habits presented by the crystals is very extensive, nearly two hundred distinct forms being figured by V. von Lang in his monograph of the species; without measurement of the angles the crystals are frequently difficult to decipher. The hardness is 3 and the specific gravity 6-3. There are distinct cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism jno( and the basal plane |ooi(, but these are not so well developed as in the isomorphous minerals barytes and celestite.
Anglesite is a mineral of secondary origin, having been formed by the oxidation of galena in the upper parts of mineral lodes where these have been affected by weathering processes. At Monteponi the crystals encrust cavities in glistening granular galena; and from Leadhills, in Scotland, pseudomorphs of anglesite after galena are known. At most localities it is found
as isolated crystals in the lead-bearing lodes, but at some places, in Australia and Mexico, it occurs as large masses, and is then mined as an ore of lead, of which -the pure mineral contains 68 %.
ANGLI, ANGLH or ANGLES, a Teutonic people mentioned by Tacitus in his Germania (cap. 40) at the end of the ist century. He gives no precise indication of their geographical position, but states that, together with six other tribes, including the Varini (the Warni of later times), they worshipped a goddess named Nerthus, whose sanctuary was situated on " an island in the Ocean." Ptolemy in his Geography (ii. n. § 15), half a century later, locates them with more precision between the Rhine, or rather perhaps the Ems, and the Elbe, and speaks of them as one of the chief tribes of the interior. Unfortunately, however, it is clear from a comparison of his map with the evidence furnished by Tacitus and other Roman writers that the indica- tions which he gives cannot be correct. Owing to the uncertainty of these passages there has been much speculation regarding the original home of the Angli. One theory, which however has little to recommend it, is that they dwelt in the basin of the Saale (in the neighbourhood of the canton Engilin), from which region the Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum is believed by many to have come. At the present time the majority of scholars believe that the Angli had lived from the beginning on the coasts of the Baltic, probably in the southern part of the Jutish peninsula. The evidence for this view is derived partly from English and Danish traditions dealing with persons and events of the 4th century (see below), and partly from the fact that striking affinities to the cult of Nerthus as described by Tacitus are to be found in Scandinavian, especially Swedish and Danish, religion. Investigations in this subject have rendered it very probable that the island of Nerthus was Sjaelland (Zealand), and it is further to be observed that the kings of Wessex traced their ancestry ultimately to a certain Scyld, who is clearly to be identified with Skioldr, the mythical founder of the Danish royal family (Skioldungar). In English tradition this person is connected with " Scedeland " (pi.), a name which may have been applied to Sjaelland as well as Skane, while in Scandinavian tradition he is specially associated with the ancient royal residence at Leire in Sjaelland.
Bede states that the Angli before they came to Britain dwelt in a land called Angulus, and similar evidence is given by the Historia Brittonum. King Alfred and the chronicler ^Ethelweard identified this place with the district which is now called Angel in the province of Schleswig (Slesvig), though it may then have been of greater extent, and this identification agrees very well with the indications given by Bede. Full confirmation is afforded by English and Danish traditions relating to two kings named Wermund (q.v.) and Offa (q.v.), from whom the Mercian royal family were descended, and whose exploits are connected with Angel, Schleswig and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has pre- served record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig), from whom the royal family of Wessex claimed descent. During the 5th century the Angli invaded this country (see BRITAIN, Anglo- Saxon), after which time their name does not recur on the con- tinent except in the title of the code mentioned above.
The province of Schleswig has proved exceptionally rich in prehistoric antiquities which date apparently from the 4th and 5th centuries. Among the places where these have been found, special mention should be made of the large cremation cemetery at Borgstedterfeld, between Rendsburg and Eckernforde, which has yielded many urns and brooches closely resembling those found in heathen graves in England. Of still greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsbjaerg (in Angel) and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments, articles of clothing, agricultural implements, &c., and in the latter case even ships. By the help of these discoveries we are able to reconstruct a fairly detailed picture of English civilization in the age preceding the invasion of Britain.
AUTHORITIES. — Bede, Hist. Ecc. i. 15; King Alfred's version of Orosius, i. I. §§ 12, 19; Athelweard's Chronicle, lib. i. For traditions concerning the kings of Angel, see under OFFA (i). L. Weiland,
ANGLICAN COMMUNION
Dit Antfln (i««9): A. Erdmann. Cbtr die Ihimal und den Namen 4trA*t<'* (I'pnU. 1890— cf. II. Moller in the Antfttrrfur deutukti AUtrltim **d dmtsdu LiUfralur. xxii. 129 ff.); A. Kock in the .TM* TuUkriJt (Stockholm). 1895. xv. p. lt>\ ff. : G. SchUttr, Vor Antlemt Tyikert t (Klcnubore, 1900); H. Munro Cha<lwii k, Tin Oririn of Ou English Nation (Cambridge. 1907); C. Engelhardt. nnmark in tilt Early Iron Ate (London, 1866); I. Mentorf, Urnrn- frudhdfe in ScUenng-HolsUin (Hamburg. 1886) ; S. Mailer. Norducke AUfrlHinsknndf (Ger. trans.. Slras-sbuiv. 1898), ii. p. 122 ff. ; tee further ANGLO-SAXONS and BRITAIN, Anglo-Saxon. (H. M. C.)
ANGLICAN COMMUNION, the name used to denote that great branch of the Christian Church consisting of the various churches in communion with the Church of England. The necessity for such a phrase as " Anglican Communion," first used in the igth century, marked at once the immense development of the Anglican Church in modern times and the change which has taken place in the traditional conceptions of its character and sphere. The Church of England itself is the subject of a separate article (see ENGLAND, CHURCH or); and it is not without significance that for more than two centuries after the Reformation the history of Anglicanism is practically confined to its developments within the limits of the British Isles. Even in Ireland, where it was for over three centuries the established religion, and in Scotland, where it early gave way to the dominant Fresbyterianism, its religious was long overshadowed by its political significance. The Church, in fact, while still claiming to be Catholic in its creeds and in its religious practice, had ceased to be Catholic in its institutional conception, which was now bound up with a particular state and also with a particular conception of that state. To the native Irishman and the Scots- man, as indeed to most Englishmen, the Anglican Church was one of the main buttresses of the supremacy of the English crown and nation. This conception of the relations of church and state was hardly favourable to missionary zeal; and in the age succeed- ing the Reformation there was no disposition on the part of the English Church to emulate the wonderful activity of the Jesuits, which, in the i6th and i;th centuries, brought to the Church of Rome in countries beyond the ocean compensation for what she had lost in Europe through the Protestant reformation. Even when English churchmen passed beyond the seas, they carried with them their creed, but not their ecclesiastical organiza- tion. Prejudice and real or imaginary legal obstacles stood in the way of the erection of episcopal sees in the colonies; and though in the I7th century Archbishop Laud had attempted to obtain a bishop for Virginia, up to the time of the American revolution the churchmen of the colonies had to make the best of the legal fiction that their spiritual needs were looked after by the bishop of London, who occasionally sent commissaries to visit them and ordained candidates for the ministry sent to England for the purpose.
The change which has made it possible for Anglican churchmen to claim that their communion ranks with those of Rome and the Orthodox East as one of the three great historical divisions of the Catholic Church, was due, in the first instance, to the American revolution. The severance of the colonies from their allegiance to the crown brought the English bishops for the first time face to face with the idea of an Anglican Church which should have nothing to do either with the royal supremacy or with British nationality. When, on the conclusion of peace, the church-people of Connecticut sent Dr Samuel Seabury to England, with a request to the archbishop of Canterbury to consecrate him, it is not surprising that Archbishop Moore refused. In the opinion of prelates and lawyers alike, an act of parliament was necessary before a bishop could be consecrated for a see abroad; to consecrate one for a foreign country seemed impossible, since, though the bestowal of the poteslas ordinis would be valid, the crown, which, according to the law, was the source of the episcopal jurisdiction, could hardly issue the necessary mandate for the consecration of a bishop to a sec outside the realm (see BISHOP). The Scottish bishops, however, being hampered by no such legal restrictions, were more amen- able; and on the nth of November 1784 Seabury was con- secrated by them to the see of Connecticut. In 1786, on the
Initiative of the archbishop, the legal difficulties IB were removed by the act for the consecration of bishop* abroad, and, on being satisfied a* to the orthodoxy of the church in America and the nature of certain liturgical change* in con- templation, the two English archbishop* proceeded, on the I4th of February 1787, to consecrate William White and Samuel Prevoost to the see* of Pennsylvania and New York (*ee PmorcsTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH).
This act had a significance beyond the fact that it established in the United States of America a flourishing church, which, while completely loyal to its own country, is bound by special ties to the religious life of England. It marked the emergence of the Church of England from that insularity to which what may be called the territorial principles of the Reformation had condemned her. The change was slow, and it is not yet by any means complete.
Since the Church of England, whatever her attitude toward* the traditional Catholic doctrines, never disputed the validity of Catholic orders whether Roman or Orthodox, nor the juris- diction of Catholic bishops in foreign countries, the expansion of the Anglican Church has been in no sense conceived a* a Protestant aggressive movement against Rome. Occasional exceptions, such as the consecration by Archbishop Plunket of Dublin of a bishop for the reformed church in Spain, raised so strong a protest as to prove the rule. In the main, then, the expansion of the Anglican Church has followed that of the British empire, or, as in America, of its daughter states; its claim, so far as rights of jurisdiction are concerned, is to be the Church of England and the English race, while recognizing its special duties towards the non-Christian populations subject to the empire or brought within the reach of its influence. As against the Church of Rome, with its system of rigid centraliza- tion, the Anglican Church represents the principle of local autonomy, which it holds to be once more primitive and more catholic. In this respect the Anglican communion has developed on the lines defined in her articles at the Reformation; but, though in principle there is no great difference between a church defined by national, and a church denned by racial boundaries, there is an immense difference in effect, especially when the race — as in the case of the English — is itself ecumenical.
The realization of what may be called this catholic mission of the English church, in the extension of its organization to the colonies, was but a slow process.
On the 1 2th of August 1787 Dr Charles Inglis was consecrated bishop of Nova Scotia, with jurisdiction over all the British possessions in North America. In 1793 the see of 7-^, Quebec was founded ; Jamaica and Barbados followed C*«rc* in 1824, and Toronto and Newfoundland in 1839. to '*• Meanwhile the needs of India has been tardily met, on the urgent representations in parliament of William Wilberforce and others, by the consecration of Dr T. F. Middleton as bishop of Calcutta, with three archdeacons to assist him. In 181 7 Ceylon was added to his charge; in 1823 all British subjects in the East Indies and the islands of the Indian Ocean; and in 1824 "New South Wales and its dependencies''! Some five years later, on the nomination of the duke of Wellington, William Broughton was sent out to work in this enormous jurisdiction as archdeacon of Australia. Soon afterwards, in 1835 and 1837, the sees of Madras and Bombay were founded; whilst in 1836 Broughton himself was consecrated as first bishop of Australia. Thus down to 1840 there were but ten colonial bishops; and of these several were so hampered by civil regulations that they were little more than government chaplains in episcopal orders. In April of that year, however, Bishop Blomfield of London published his famous letter to the archbishop of Canterbury, declaring that " an episcopal church without a bishop is a contradiction in terms," and strenuously advocating a great efiort for the extension of the episcopate. It was not in vain. The plan was taken up with enthusiasm, and on Whitsun Tuesday of 1841 the bishops of the United Kingdom met and issued a declaration which inaugurated the Colonial Bishoprics Council. Subsequent
20
ANGLICAN COMMUNION
declarations in 187 2 and 1 891 have served both to record progress and to stimulate to new effort. The diocese of New Zealand was founded in 1841, being endowed by the Church Missionary Society through the council, and George Augustus Selwyn was chosen as the first bishop. Since then the increase has gone on, as the result both of home effort and of the action of the colonial churches. Moreover, in many cases bishops have been sent to inaugurate new missions, as in the cases of the Universities' Mission to Central Africa, Lebombo, Corea and New Guinea; and the missionary jurisdictions so founded develop in time into dioceses. Thus, instead of the ten colonial jurisdictions of 1841, there are now about a hundred foreign and colonial jurisdictions, in addition to those of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States.
It was only very gradually that these dioceses acquired legislative independence and a determinate organization. At first, sees were created and bishops were nominated by the crown by means of letters patent; and in some cases an income was assigned out of public funds. Moreover, for many years all bishops alike were consecrated in England, took the customary " oath of due obedience " to the archbishop of Canterbury, and were regarded as his extra-territorial suffragans. But by degrees changes have been made on all these points.
(1) Local conditions soon made a provincial organization necessary, and it was gradually introduced. The bishop of Cal-
cutta received letters patent as metropolitan of India when the sees of Madras and Bombay were founded; «on and fresh patents were issued to Bishop Broughton in
1847 and Bishop Gray in 1833, as metropolitans of Australia and South Africa respectively. Similar action was taken in 1858, when Bishop Selwyn became metropolitan of New Zealand; and again in 1860, when, on the petition of the Canadian bishops to the crown and the colonial legislature for permission to elect a metropolitan, letters patent were issued appointing Bishop Fulford of Montreal to that office. Since then metropolitans have been chosen and provinces formed by regular synodical action, a process greatly encouraged by the resolutions of the Lambeth conferences on the subject. The constitution of these provinces is not uniform. In some cases, as South Africa,New South Wales, and Queensland.the metropolitan see is fixed. Elsewhere, as in New Zealand, where no single city can claim pre-eminence, the metropolitan is either elected or else is the senior bishop by consecration. Two further developments must be mentioned : (a) The creation of diocesan and provincial synods, the first diocesan synod to meet being that of New Zealand in 1844, whilst the formation of a provincial synod was foreshadowed by a conference of Australasian bishops at Sydney in 1850; (b) towards the close of the igth century the title of archbishop began to be assumed by the metropolitans of several provinces. It was first assumed by the metropolitans of Canada and Rupert's Land, at the desire of the Canadian general synod in 1893; and subsequently, in accordance with a resolution of the Lambeth conference of 1897, it was given by their synods to the bishop of Sydney as metropolitan of New South Wales and to the bishop of Cape Town as metropolitan of South Africa. Civil obstacles have hitherto delayed its adoption by the metro- politan of India.
(2) By degrees, also, the colonial churches have been freed from their rather burdensome relations with the state. The
church of the West Indies was disestablished and disendowed in 1868. In 1857 it was decided, in Regina v. Eton College, that the crown could not claim the presentation to a living when it had appointed the former incumbent to a colonial bishopric, as it does in the case of an English bishopric. In 1861, after some protest from the crown lawyers, two missionary bishops were consecrated without letters patent for regions outside British territory: C. F. Mackenzie for the Zambezi region and J. C. Patteson for Melanesia, by the metropolitans of Cape Town and New Zealand respectively. In 1863 the privy council declared, in Long v. The Bishop of Cape Town, that " the Church of England, in places where there is no church established by law, is in the same
control.
situation with any other religious body." In 1865 it adjudged Bishop Gray's letters patent, as metropolitan of Cape Town, to be powerless to enable him " to exercise any coercive juris- diction, or hold any court or tribunal for that purpose," since the Cape colony already possessed legislative institutions when they were issued; and his deposition of Bishop Colenso was declared to be " null and void in law " (re The Bishop of NaloJ). With the exception of Colenso the South African bishops forthwith surrendered their patents,and formally accepted Bishop Gray as their metropolitan, an example followed in 1865 in the province of New Zealand. In 1862, when the diocese of Ontario was formed, the bishop was elected in Canada, and con- secrated under a royal mandate, letters patent being by this time entirely discredited. And when, in 1867, a coadjutor was chosen for the bishop of Toronto, an application for a royal mandate produced the reply from the colonial secretary that " it was not the part of the crown to interfere in the creation of a new bishop or bishopric, and not consistent with the dignity of the crown that he should advise Her Majesty to issue a mandate which would not be worth the paper on which it was written, and which, having been sent out to Canada, might be disregarded in the most complete manner." And at the present day the colonial churches are entirely free in this matter. This, however, is not the case with the church in India. Here the bishops of sees founded down to 1879 receive a stipend from the revenue (with the exception of the bishop of Ceylon, who no longer does so). They are not only nominated by the crown and consecrated under letters patent, but the appointment is expressly subjected " to such power of revocation and recall as is by law vested " in the crown; and where additional oversight was necessary for the church in Tinnevelly, it could only be secured by the consecration of two assistant bishops, who worked under a com- mission for the archbishop of Canterbury which was to expire on the death of the bishop of Madras. Since then, however, new sees have been founded which are under no such restrictions: by the creation of dioceses either in native states (Travancore and Cochin), or out of the existing dioceses (Chota Nagpur, Lucknow, &c.). In the latter case there is no legal subdivision of the older diocese, the new bishop administering such districts as belonged to it under commission from its bishop, provision being made, however, that in all matters ecclesiastical there shall be no appeal but to the metropolitan of India.
(3) By degrees, also, the relations of colonial churches to the archbishop of Canterbury have changed. Until 1855 no colonial bishop was consecrated outside the British Isles, the first instance being Dr MacDougall of Labuan, con- secrated in India under a commission from the arch- bishop of Canterbury; and until 1874 it was held to be unlawful for a bishop to be consecrated in England without taking the suffragan's oath of due obedience. This necessity was removed by the Colonial Clergy Act of 1874, which permits the archbishop at his discretion to dispense with the oath. This, however, has not been done in all cases; and as late as 1890 it was taken by the metropolitan of Sydney at his consecration. Thus the constituent parts of the Anglican communion gradually acquire autonomy: missionary jurisdictions develop into organized dioceses, and dioceses are grouped into provinces with canons of their own. But the most complete autonomy does not involve isolation. The churches are in full communion with one another, and act together in many ways; missionary jurisdictions and dioceses are mapped out by common arrangement, and even transferred if it seems advisable; e.g. the diocese Honolulu (Hawaii), previously under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury, was transferred in 1900 to the Episcopal Church in the United States on account of political changes. Though the see of Canterbury claims no primacy over the Anglican communion analogous to that exercised over the Roman Church by the popes, it is regarded with a strong affection and deference, which shows itself by frequent consultation and interchange of greetings. There is also a strong common life emphasized by common action.
The conference of Anglican bishops from all parts of the world,
ANGLING
21
instituted by Archbishop Longlcy in 1867, and known as the Lambeth Conferences (?.».), though even for the Anglican communion they have not the authority of an ecumenical synod, and their decisions are rather of the nature of counsels than commands, have done much to promote the harmony and co-operation of the various branches of the Church. An even more imposing manifestation of this
1 ommon life was given by the great pan-Anglican congress held in London between the i.-ih and 24th of June 1008, which preceded the Lambeth conference opened on the 5th of July. The idea of this originated with Bishop Montgomery, secretary to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and was endorsed by a resolution of the United Boards of Mission in 1003. As the result of negotiations and preparations extending over five years, 250 bishops, together with delegates, clerical and lay, from every diocese in the Anglican communion, met in London, the opening service of intercession being held in Westminster Abbey. In its general character, the meeting was but a Church congress on an enlarged scale, and the subjects discussed, e.g. the attitude of churchmen towards the question of the marriage laws or that of socialism, followed much the same lines. The congress, of course, had no power to decide or to legislate for the Church, its main value being in drawing its scattered members closer together, in bringing the newer and more isolated branches into con- sciousness of their contact with the parent stem, and in opening the eyes of the Church of England to the point of view and the peculiar problems of the daughter-churches.
The Anglican communion consists of the following: — (i) The Church of England, 2 provinces, Canterbury and York, with 24 and ii dioceses respectively. (2) The Church of Ireland,
2 provinces, Armagh and Dublin, with 7 and 6 dioceses respec- tively. (3) The Scottish Episcopal Church, with ^ dioceses. (4) The Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States, with So, dioceses and missionary jurisdictions, including North Tokyo, Kyoto, Shanghai, Cape Palmas, and the independent dioceses of (lay ti and Brazil. (5) The Canadian Church, consisting of (a) the province of Canada, with 10 dioceses; (b) the province of Rupert's Land, with 8 dioceses. (6) The Church in India and Ceylon, i province of n dioceses. (7) The Church of the West Indies, i province of 8 dioceses, of which Barbados and the Windward Islands are at present united. (8) The Australian Church, consisting of (a) the province of New South Wales, with 10 dioceses; (b) the province of Queensland, with 5 dioceses; (c) the province of Victoria, with 5 dioceses. (9) The Church of New Zealand, i province of 7 dioceses, together with the missionary jurisdiction of Melanesia. (10) The South African Church, i province of 10 dioceses, with the 2 missionary jurisdictions of Mashonaland and Lebombo. (n) Nearly 30 isolated dioceses and missionary jurisdictions holding mission from the see of Canterbury.
AUTHORITIES.— -Official Year-book of the Church of England: I'hillimorc, Ecclesiastical Law, vol. ii. (London, 1895); Direst of S.P.G. Record! (London, 1893); E. Stock. History of the Church Missionary Society. 3 vols. (London, 1899); H. W. Tucker, The English Church in Other Lands (London, 1886); A. T. Wirgman, The Church and the Civil Power (London, 1893).
ANGLING, the art or practice of the sport of catching fish by means of a baited hook or " angle " (from the Indo-European root ank-, meaning " bend ").' It is among the most ancient of human activities, and may be said to date from the time when man was in the infancy of the Stone Age, eking out a precarious existence by the slaughter of any living thing which he could reach with the rude weapons at his command. It is probable that attack on fishes was at first much the same as attack on
1 As to whether " angling " necessarily implies a rod as well as a line and hook, see the discussion in the law case of Barnard v. Roberts (Times L.R., April 13, 1907), when the Question arose as to the use of night-lines being angling; but the decision against night-lines went on the ground of the absence of the personal element rather than on the absence of a rod. The various dictionaries are blind guides on this point, and the authorities cited are inconclusive; but, broadly speaking, angling now implies three necessary factors — a personal angler, the sporting element, and the use of recognized fishing-tackle.
animals, a matter of force rather than of guile, and conducted by means of a rude •pear with a flint head. It is probable, too, that the primitive harpoonera were not signally successful in their efforts, and so set their wits to work to devise other mean* of getting at the abundant food which waited for them in every piece of water near their caves. Observation would icon show them that fuh fed greedily on each other and on other inhabitant* of the water or living things that fell into it, and to, no doubt, arose the idea of entangling the prey by means of its appetite Hence came the notion of the first hook, which, it teem* certain, was not a hook at all but a " gorge," a piece of flint or (tone which the fish could swallow with the bait but which it could not eject afterwards. From remains found in cave-dwellings and their neighbourhood in different parts of the world it is obvious that these gorges varied in shape, but in general the idea was the same, a narrow strip of stone or flake of flint, either straight or slightly curved at the ends, with a groove in the middle round which the line could be fastened. Buried in the bait it would be swallowed end first; then the tightening of the line would fix it cross-wise in the quarry's stomach or gullet and so the capture would be assured. The device still lingers in France and in a few remote parts of England in the method of catching eels which is known as " sniggling." In this a needle buried in a worm plays the part of the prehistoric gorge.
The evolution of the fish-hook from the slightly curved gorge is easily intelligible. The ends became more and more curved. until eventually an object not unlike a double hook was attained. This development would be materially assisted by man's dis- covery of the uses of bronze and its adaptability to his require- ments. The single hook, of the pattern more or less familiar to us, was possibly a concession of the lake-dweller to what may even then have been a problem — the " education " of fish, and to a recognition of the fact that sport with the crude old methods was falling off. But it is also not improbable that in some parts of the world the single hook developed part passu with the double, and that, on the sea-shore for instance, where man was able to employ so adaptable a substance as shell, the first hook was a curved fragment of shell lashed with fibre to a piece of wood or bone, in such a way that the shell formed the bend of the hook while the wood or bone formed the shank. Both early remains and recent hooks from the Fiji Islands bear out this supposition. It is also likely that flint, horn and bone were pressed into service in a similar manner. The nature of the line or the rod that may have been used with these early hooks is largely a matter of conjecture. The first line was perhaps the tendril of a plant, the first rod possibly a sapling tree. But it is fairly obvious that the rod must have been suggested by the necessity of getting the bait out over obstacles which lay between the fisherman and the water, and that it was a device for increas- ing both the reach of the arm and the length of the line. It seems not improbable that the rod very early formed a part of the fisherman's equipment.
Literary History. — From prehistoric times down to compara- tively late in the days of chronicles, angling appears to have remained a practice; its development into an art or sport is a modern idea. In the earliest literature references to angling are not very numerous, but there are passages in the Old Testament which show that fish-taking